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' 






Traction Farming and 
Traction Engineering 

Gasoline — Alcohol — Kerosene 


A Practical Hand-Book for the Owners and 
Operators of Gas and Oil Engines 
on the Farm 

COMPRISING 

A Full Description of the Leading Makes of Farm Tractors 
with Directions for their Care and Operation 

ALSO 

Engines for Water Supply and Electric Lighting on the Farm. 
A Special Section Devoted to Threshing Machines 

AND 

THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 



By JAMES H. STEPHENSON, M.E. • 

Author of “ Farm Engines and How to Run Them,’ 
“The Young Engineer’s Guide,” Etc., Etc. 

Fully Illustrated 



CHICAGO 


FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 







Copyright 1915 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 


Copyright 1913 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 


i ’ i 

r c * 



MAY -8 1915 


©Cl A398778 

I 




CONTENTS. 

Page 

Prci3.cc .. 5 

Part I . 7 

I. The Gasoline Farm Tractor. 7 

II. Fuel Consumption of Gas Engines. 17 

III. Alcohol as Fuel. 24 

IV. Kerosene as Fuel for Traction Engines. 40 

V. Balancing of Engines. 43 

VI. Piston Rings . 48 

VII. Valves . 52 

VIII. Leaky Pistons . 60 

IX. The Cylinder . 63 

X. The Carbureter or Mixer. 66 

XI. Modern Ignition . 93 

XII. Vaporizing of Fuel.126 

XIII. Cooling Systems .135 

XIV. Lubrication .•.143 

XV. Horse Power Calculations.149 

XVI. Gasoline Engine Troubles.152 

XVII. Types of Gasoline and Oil Farm Tractors... .161 

Bates All Steel Tractor.161 

Skibo Farm Tractor.165 

Huber Traction Engine.168 

Aultman & Taylor Gasoline Tractor.170 

Rumely Oil Engine.174 

Fairbanks-Morse Oil Tractors.178 

Avery Gas and Oil Tractors.183 

Twin City Gas Tractor.198 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor.208 

Minneapolis Farm Motor.216 

Case Gasoline Tractors.220 

Caterpillar Tractor .229 

Part II.231 

I. Water Supply Systems in the Farm Home....233 

II. Electric Light for Farm Homes.253 

Part III.261 

I. The Science of Threshing.263 

II. Types of Threshing Machines.304 

Sawyer-Massey Thresher .304 

New Racine Thresher.310 

Buffalo Pitts Thresher.315 

Minneapolis Standard Separator.321 

























































































PREFACE 


THE marvelous development within recent years of 
gasoline and oil traction engineering and its adaption to 
agricultural needs, very naturally creates a demand on 
the part of those directly connected with the operation 
of these engines, for a more extended and practical 
knowledge of the details of construction and operation 
of this type of motors. The supply of reliable and prac¬ 
tical books dealing with this phase of the farmer’s work 
has not kept pace with the demand for information bear¬ 
ing upon the subject, and no one knows this better than 
the men who are called upon to care for and operate 
these machines. Many changes and improvements have 
been made in the details of construction and methods of 
manipulation of gas and oil tractors designed for farm 
work, and it is with a view of enabling the men who are 
responsible for the successful operation of these engines 
to become proficient in their calling and to obtain a prac¬ 
tical knowledge of every detail connected therewith that 
this volume is written. Much care has been exercised in 
its preparation, and an earnest effort made to place 
before the reader a reliable and practical guide and in¬ 
structor for the gas engineer. 

The larger portion of the book deals exclusively with 
gas and oil tractors, giving a complete exposition of the 
principles controlling the action of these engines, to- 


5 



6 


PREFACE 


gether with full details relative to the construction, care 
and operation of many of the more prominent types. 

Part II deals with the problems of lighting and water 
supply for the farm home. Modern genius has made 
it possible for the farmer to equip his home with prac¬ 
tically all the conveniences and comforts of city life, such 
as electric light for the house, barn and other out-build¬ 
ings, also a water system whereby an abundant supply of 
water is made available for the use of the family and the 
stock. Both the electric light and water pumping sys¬ 
tems are operated by gasoline or oil engines, all being 
fully described and illustrated. 

Part III is devoted to the subject of threshing and the 
operation of threshing machines by means of the gaso¬ 
line or oil tractor. Complete descriptions of the leading 
types of threshers are given, together with illustrations 
of the same, also harvesting machines, ploughs, and other 
farm machinery, all of which may be operated by means 
of the tractor. 


TRACTION FARMING AND 
TRACTION ENGINEERING 


PART I 


CHAPTER I. 

THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR. 

THE gasoline motor, adapted as it is to the use of fuel 
in the form of gasoline, kerosene and alcohol, furnishes 
a source of power for both traction and stationary pur¬ 
poses that is at once economical, clean and safe, and is 
able to develop power from a fuel, the supply of which 
is practically inexhaustible. The use of the gasoline mo¬ 
tor has become so general that we find it in use every¬ 
where, and practically for all purposes where power is 
needed. 

One of the most hopeful signs, and one which presages 
future prosperity, is the rapidly increasing use of gaso¬ 
line traction engines on the farm. Mechanical power 
applied to the heavy work on the farm enables larger 
areas to be handled, and as a consequence the production 
is increased accordingly. Because the farmer is aided by 
mechanical power to make the earth yield more abun¬ 
dantly, the city dweller is able to obtain the necessaries 
of life at a less cost than would be the case if all labor 
was done by hand. 

The farm tractor is rapidly becoming the horse that 
will do all the hard work. It plows and prepares the 


7 




8 


TRACTION FARMING 


ground for seeding, it harvests the corn and grain, shells, 
threshes, separates and cleans the crops for market. It 
shreds the cornstalks for silage and fodder and helps 
in building country roads. 

The average weight of a gasoline or oil traction en¬ 
gine should be from five to ten tons. Such a machine as 
this should develop from fifteen to forty horse power and 
be relied on at all times to perform the hard work usu¬ 
ally performed by the horse. 

A good gasoline traction engine while hauling a gang 
of eight plows can easily turn over in a day from twenty 
to twenty-five acres. When smaller plows are required 
the disc may be used to good advantage as it rolls over 
stones or other obstructions that are sometimes encount¬ 
ered, and which might cause trouble for a mould board 
plow. 

One of the successful practices on the farms of the 
west is to hitch a harvester and binder to the traction 
engine. Vast fields of grain are thus handled to advan¬ 
tage and at a less expense than by the use of horses. 

The gasoline engine is taking the place of the uncer¬ 
tain wind mill. It is used to operate the churn, it saws 
wood, operates the corn cutter, and in a large number 
of cases it is used to generate electricity for the farm 
home and out-buildings. It also plows, drags, harrows, 
harvests, threshes and pulls heavy loads over country 
roads. In fact this engine is a man-of-all work. 

By the aid of the engine the farmer may have a better 
water supply than his city relatives. For instance, an 
elevated storage tank will give gravity pressure for fau¬ 
cets or hydrants all over the farm, and the pneumatic 
tank, underground, gives both pressure and insurance 
against freezing. In the latter the engine may be used 


THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


9 


to pump either air or water into the tank up to a pres¬ 
sure of from 15 to 75 pounds per square inch. It is 
now possible, by means of an engine, a compressed air 
tank and a submerged pump, to have abundant water di¬ 
rect from the well by simply turning a cock in the kitchen. 
The pump, located at least six feet under the water, may 
be started by turning the faucet, the air supplying power 
for operating the pump. A surprisingly large percentage 
of farm houses are being equipped with modern sanitary 
conveniences which contribute to the health and comfort 
of the family. 

The gasoline engine has solved the problem of irriga¬ 
tion in many square miles of semi-arid territory where 
large projects are not possible or have been delayed. Wa¬ 
ter can often be found at a shallow depth in dry runs 
or by boring. A five horse power engine will raise 500 
gallons per minute from a depth of twenty feet. 

One of the most exhaustive chores in connection with 
the harvesting of the corn crop is shoveling off the load 
after a day of ten or twelve hours in the field. Now a 
two-horse-power gasoline engine, attached to a portable 
elevator, will empty a thirty-bushel load of ear corn into 
a car, corn crib or granary in from three to six minutes. 
The same is true to some extent of the small grain crops. 
Quite often both elevator and engine are mounted on the 
same truck, and in connection with the large threshing 
outfits this combination saves labor that is hard to get 
just at that time. The wagon is driven into position, 
the front wheels elevated and the rear end gate removed. 
The grain falls into the hopper, is elevated by an endless 
conveyor and delivered by a flexible spout at heights 
practically impossible by hand. The engine has there¬ 
fore made it possible to build granaries and corn cribs 


10 


TRACTION FARMING 


higher, at a considerable saving in initial expense per 
unit of storage space. 

But simple and useful as this wonderful motor is, a 
certain amount of skill and care is required in order to 
obtain satisfactory results from its operation, and it is 
for the purpose of supplying the necessary information 
and rules for the guidance of the operators of these mo¬ 
tors that the following pages have been written. 

Principles of Action .—One of the greatest aids to the 
successful management of a gas engine is a thorough un¬ 
derstanding of the principles controlling its action, and 
the nature of the fuel used in the cylinder for generat¬ 
ing the power. Various methods are employed in the 
production of this explosive, power producing gas. First, 
there is natural gas, generated in the bosom of the earth; 
second, artificial gas, manufactured from coal and other 
substances by means of a gas producer; and third, the 
generation of the gas within the cylinder of the engine, 
by passing small quantities of the liquid fuel, gasoline, 
kerosene or alcohol, through a device called a mixer or 
carbureter, which is attached to the cylinder. The only 
difference between a gas engine proper and a gasoline 
or oil engine is, that in a gas engine, the gas is supplied 
to the cylinder by a gas producer, while in the gasoline 
engine the gas is generated within the cylinder from a 
charge of gasoline and exploded at the beginning of 
each power stroke. An engine using gas may be easily 
changed to use gasoline, or a gasoline engine may, by a 
few simple changes, be fitted to use natural or artificial 
gas. 

The gas engine is a prime mover which derives its 
power or energy from the heat generated by the combus¬ 
tion within its cylinder, of a mixture of gas and air in 


THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


11 


the proper proportion to form an explosive. The com¬ 
bustion of this charge of gas and air is occasioned under 
a close or heavy compression, a result of the inward 
movement of the piston after the charge is admitted and 
all valves closed. The result of igniting this mixture 
under the heavy compression is an explosion, which is 
nothing more than a quick burning or rapid combustion 
of the mixture. This sudden explosion causes a high 
degree of heat within the cylinder behind the piston, and, 
the resultant high initial pressure against the piston drives 


8 



FIGURE 1. 


A 8 



it forward, and, through the medium of connecting rod 
and crank, motion is imparted to the main engine shaft. 
Four-Cycle Engine .—The original gas engines, and a 




































12 


TRACTION FARMING 


majority of the smaller sizes of today, operate upon the 
Beau de Rochas cycle, or four-stroke cycle, sometimes 
termed the Otto cycle, meaning that an engine completes 
a cycle in four acts, defined as follows: 

(1) Induction .—During an outstroke of the piston, see 
Figure 1, air and gas in suitable proportions are drawn 
into the cylinder. (2) Compression .—The following in¬ 
stroke, see Figure 2, compresses the combustible mixture 
into the clearance space. (3) Explosion .—Ignition of 


A B 




'V', 'r 



FIGURE 4. 


the compressed charge causes a rapid rise of pressure 
and subsequent expansion of products, see Figure 3. (4) 
Expulsion .—The expanded gases are expelled by the re¬ 
turning piston, see Figure 4. In this type of gas engine, 





























THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


13 


two revolutions of the crankshaft are necessary in or¬ 
der to complete one cycle. 

Two-Cycle Engine .—Many small engines and some of 
those of largest power are designed upon the two-stroke 
cycle, which is as follows: (1) Compression of the 
charge. (2) Ignition, explosion and expansion, and at 
the end of the stroke the exhaust products are expelled 



FIGURE 5. 

Vertical Cross-Section, Showing the Construction of a Two- 
Cycle Gas or Gasoline Engine. 

and the cylinder filled by a mixture of gas and air under 
pressure. In the two-cycle engine, two compression 
chambers are necessary, due to the fact that in this type 


























14 


TRACTION FARMING 


of gas engine consisting of two cylinders, either side by 
side, or tandem, the charge of gas and air is being re¬ 
ceived in one cylinder, while the previous charge in the 
other cylinder is being compressed, preparatory to ex¬ 
plosion. A two-cycle engine thus explodes a charge, and 
receives an impulse at each revolution. It is important 
to admit only pure air and gas into engine cylinders. 
Dust and grit or tarry matters cause rapid wear of in¬ 
terior surfaces. Care is also necessary to insure the 
induction of cold charges, in order that maximum dens¬ 
ity of gas and air may be obtained. 

Figure 5 shows a vertical cross-section of a two-cycle 
type of marine engine. C is the crank chamber. It has 
two feet, or lugs, D as shown in the drawing, for the 
purpose of attaching it in its postion. There is an 
opening at A for the reception of the mixing-valve. The 
flywheel F, crankshaft G, connecting-rod H, piston P, 
inlet-port B, baffle-plate J and exhaust-opening E, are 
plainly shown in the drawing. 

To the top of the piston P is attached a cone-pointed 
projection K. This is on the right hand side and is 
placed there to break the electrical circuit between the 
contact points of the igniter. This is effected by the 
cone-point K striking the right hand end of the lever L, 
which causes the lever to rise at that end and fall at 
the other, thus breaking the contact between it and the 
insulated igniter terminal M. This breakage of the cir¬ 
cuit causes a spark to occur between the left hand end 
of the lever L and the point with which it was, a moment 
before, in contact. This action takes place once in each 
revolution of the motor and just before the piston reaches 
the end of its upward stroke. 

The ignition may be retarded or advanced by raising or 


THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


15 


lowering the fulcrum of the lever L, by means of the 
eccentric shown. 

The upper part of the cylinder is incased by a water 
jacket W, as is the cylinder head or cover N. 

Figure 6 gives two diagrammatic views of the opera¬ 
tion of a two-cycle gas or oil engine. It shows an inlet 
valve A, port or passage B, crankcase C, exhaust-open¬ 
ing E, and piston P. When the piston has reached the 
position shown in Diagram 1, it has forced a charge of 
the explosive mixture from the crankcase through the 
port or passage into the cylinder. The piston then moves 



Two-Cycle Motor Diagrams, Showing the Various Op¬ 
erations During the Cycles. 

to the position shown in Diagram 2, and while doing so, 
closes the port or passage and the exhaust opening, the 
compressed charge is then ignited, an explosion occurs 
and the piston is forced out to the position shown in 
Diagram 1. 

The admission of the new charge of explosive mixture 




















16 


TRACTION FARMING 


to the crankcase is controlled by the action of the piston. 
As the latter travels away from the crankcase, it has a 
tendency to create a partial vacuum in the latter. This 
operation draws the inlet-valve inward and admits the 
new charge. 

The baffle-plate shown on the head of the piston di¬ 
rects the new charge from the crankcase towards the 
combustion chamber end of the cylinder, providing as 
nearly as possible a pure charge of mixture and assisting 
in the expulsion of the burned gases left in the cylinder 
from the last explosion. 

As this type of engine draws in a charge of explosive 
mixture, compresses it, ignites it and discharges the 
products of combustion while the piston makes one com¬ 
plete travel backward and forward, it consequently has 
a working stroke or power impulse every revolution of 
the crankshaft. 


I 


CHAPTER II. 

FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES. 

The fuel consumption, whether gas or gasoline, de¬ 
pends largely upon the favorable construction of all parts 
entering into the control and feed of the fuel supply to 
the engine, as well as upon the prompt and vigorous 
ignition of each charge, and the application of the en¬ 
ergy resulting from it. The degree of compression which 
is most favorable to the fuel used in economy and power 
development must be carefully maintained. 

The manufacturer may so construct his engines as to 
show a tolerably uniform result in the shop test in fuel 
consumption, yet, when the product of his plant is shipped 
into widely different parts of the country, where the 
climatic and other conditions are at variance with those 
under which the tests were made in the plant, a variable 
fuel consumption should be expected; in fact, is bound to 
be the result. 

Before making a specific guarantee the manufacturer 
should be in position to control the conditions above re¬ 
ferred to and the fuel used. The heat units of the fuel 
used determine also in a measure the quantity consumed. 
To show the inconsistency of undertaking to make a 
specific guarantee as to fuel consumption, it may be news 
to many to know that even the same engine under ex¬ 
actly the same environments and conditions and on the 


17 


18 


TRACTION FARMING 


same gas fuel may show a wide range of difference in 
quantity of fuel consumed in repeated tests. 

Fuel Tests .—In sixteen tests made by Prof. Burstall 
at Birmingham, England, on the same engine, with il¬ 
luminating gas of the town, the engine did not show the 
same fuel consumption in any two of the sixteen tests. 
The fuel consumed in the tests ranged from 20.3 to 35.1 
cu.ft. per horse power per hour. 

When the engine showed 20.3 cu.ft. it was develop¬ 
ing 5.1 h.p. When it used 35.1 cu.ft. it developed only 
2.52 h.p. Consequently the heavier the load the lower 
was the fuel consumption compared with the work done. 
The speed of the engine no doubt contributed to the va¬ 
riation in fuel used. This was only 107 r.p.m. when the 
engine showed the highest power and the lowest ratio 
of fuel consumption. While at the minimum power point 
and maximum ratio of consumption the engine was mak¬ 
ing 155 r.p.m. 

Ordinarily it is the belief that the higher the speed the 
more power the engine develops, but this is not neces¬ 
sarily so, and may be exactly the reverse, as in this case. 

These Birmingham tests show a variation in air vol¬ 
ume from 5.3 to 10.8 of air to one of gas. The best 
results seem to have been obtained at 8.6 parts of air 
to one of gas. It is such an easy matter for an operator 
to change the ratio of the air and gas mixture, that 
here again a serious obstacle is encountered against 
specific guarantee. 

The following figures are given by James H. Beattie 
is Gas Poiver: 

‘These figures are based on actual tests of a four-cycle 
engine, 7pf in. bore bv 11 in. stroke, rated at 11 h.p. at 
a normal speed of 290 r.p.m. The engine showed a 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 


19 


thermal efficiency of 24.8 per cent on test with a Proney 
brake. For example we will take the fuel consump¬ 
tion at .55 lbs., per h.p., per hour, which is near the 
figure actually gotten from the test. It may be said that 
the above engine was in perfect condition when tested, 
and the thermal efficiency shown by the test would sel¬ 
dom be equalled in every day practice. In the first place, 
the valves were perfectly tight, and there was no leakage 
past the piston. The compression at the time of the 
test was 70 lb. gauge. The engine itself was one of the 
best built today. The proportion of air and fuel was 
the culmination of several previous tests. In automo¬ 
bile and marine engines it would seldom be possible to 
get equal results for various obvious reasons. 

“For example, we will assume that the gasoline used 
contained 20,000 B.t.u. per lb., at the rate of .55 lb. 
of fuel per horse power hour; this gives us 11,000 
B.t.u. per horse power hour. Each gallon of gasoline 
contains 5.9 lbs., so the fuel consumption works out to a 
little less than one-tenth gallon per horse power hour. 
In other words, this engine could be operated for 10 
hours on a little under 10 gallons of gasoline. In the 
test mentioned, the fuel consumption actually amounted 
to 9.5 gallons for 10 hours; the brake load showing 
11.9 h.p. 

“To return to the amount of fuel used at each explo¬ 
sion, the engine ran at 290 r.p.m., which means 145 
power impulses per minute, provided every possible im¬ 
pulse was taken. As a matter of fact, the brake was so 
adjusted that the engine cut out 10 strokes per minute. 

“In each cubic centimeter of gasoline, there are 50 
drops under ordinary conditions. There are 3,624 C.C. 
in a gallon or 181,200 drops in a gallon of gasoline. At 


20 


TRACTION FARMING 


a fuel consumption of one-tenth gallon per horse power 
hour or one gallon per hour for the above engine, this 
gives us one-sixtieth of 181,200 drops, or 3,200 drops to 
each minute; 3,200 divided by 135 power strokes per 
minute, gives us a little over 23 drops per power stroke. 
It should be remembered that drops of gasoline are 2 l / 2 
times as small as drops of water and in comparing this 
with water, the figures should be divided by 2 l / 2i which 
gives 9+. Results for any size cylinder may easily be 
deduced from the above figures. 

“When it comes to gas, the question is very similar. 
A good gas engine will consume about 15 ft. of city 
gas per horse power hour. Take an engine of 10 h.p., 
at 250 r.p.m., on full load, taking 125 explosions per min¬ 
ute, thus we have a consumption of 10 times 15 or 150 
ft. of gas per hour. For each minute we will have 150 
divided by GO equals 2 }2 ft.; 2 l / 2 cu.ft. of gas are thus 
sufficient for 125 power strokes, or 2]/ 2 divided by 125, 
which gives 11 s one-fiftieth of a foot of gas per explosion. 
In the case of the above engine the cylinder is 7x10 in., 
having a displacement of 466 cu.in., including clearance. 
This means that in one minute this cylinder containing 
466 cu.in. must be filled with gas and air 125 times, or 
33 cu.ft. of explosive mixture is required each minute. 
Of this 33 ft., 2 l / 2 ft. is gas and the remainder air. It 
might be said that in relation to the apparently small per¬ 
centage of gas to air, which is usually taken at 1 to 9, 
that on full load the cylinder is never entirely free from 
burned gases when the new charge enters; so the entire 
displacement of the cylinder is not taken up by mixture, 
hence the proportion of air to gas is not as large as in¬ 
dicated in the above results. To the operator who really 
takes an interest in this work, such calculations are of 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 


21 


very great interest. They are of value for the keeping 
of a close tab on fuel consumption, and consequently lead 
to economy. It is a very easy matter to test the fuel 
consumption of an engine. If gas is used, watching the 
meter with various settings of the air and fuel valves and 
keeping tab on the explosions per minute, gives a very 
good indication. If gasolne is used, the supply pipe may 
be disconnected and the connections made to a gradu¬ 
ated cylinder temporarily. Then by trying various ad¬ 
justments of the fuel and air valves, it is surprising what 
a saving may be made in the fuel used.” 

Grades of Gasoline and Fuel Oil .—Several years ago 
the gasoline in popular use ranged from 62 degrees to 
76 degrees Baume, the greater quantity used being from 
70 degrees to 74 degrees. The test has gradually de¬ 
clined at the rate of about 1 degree a year since then, 
and it is a safe prediction that the greater part of fuel 
gasoline sold in the next decade will run close to the 
lowest limit at which oil is still rated as gasoline, namely, 
62 degrees Baume. 

In the past the distillates just heavier than 62 degrees 
have been sold partly as such, partly in a mixture with 
lighter gasolines to make a heavier and poorer product, 
and partly in a mixture with heavier kerosenes to make 
an oil with a lower flash point, hence less desirable for 
illuminating purposes. Until the development of oil en¬ 
gines capable of using both the heavier and intermediate 
oils efficiently, there was no established market for the 
oils, which were too volatile for safe use in illumination, 
and too heavy for successful carburetion in the existing 
types of gasoline engines. For fuel purposes, the divid¬ 
ing line between kerosene and gasoline is rapidly dis¬ 
appearing. Owing to the impossibility of supplying 


22 


TRACTION FARMING 


enough high grade gasoline to meet the demand, the 
grade is being lowered to include a larger and larger 
proportion of the heavy oils, which occur in greater 
abundance. 

Even in the face of this expedient, the proportion of 
oils refined as kerosene and distillate is not only out¬ 
running gasoline eight or ten to one, but outrunning the 
demand for heavier oils in much greater degree. Eventu¬ 
ally kerosene also will run heavier, but oil as low as 35 
degrees Baume has been used successfully in a traction 
engine designed especially for the purpose of handling 
the heavy oils. The heavier the oil, the greater its heat 
value per gallon, and the problem which automobile and 
engine makers face is that of utilizing this heat. 

For the information of those who may not be familiar 
with the terms used to designate the various grades of 
oil, it may be said that the gravity test involves the use 
of an arbitrary Baume scale, graduated in reverse or¬ 
der from the specific gravity of liquids. The following 
table shows the quality in degrees Baume at 60 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the specific gravity as compared with water, 
and the weight in pounds per U. S. gallon: 



Baume Test 

Specific 

Wt, lbs. 

Fuel 

Degrees 

Gravity 

Per Gal. 

Gasoline . 

.76 

.679 

5.66 

Gasoline . 

.70 

.702 

5.85 

Gasoline . 

.64 

.722 

6.02 

Kerosene, 120° 

"Water White” 49 

.784 

6.53 

Kerosene, 150° 

"Water White” 47.5 

.789 

6.58 

Fuel Oil . 

.35 

.850 

7.08 


Many of the automobiles now on the market will han¬ 
dle the lower grades of distillates without difficulty, ex¬ 
cept, perhaps, in starting. With the present types of 






FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 


23 


carbureters there will be, of course, more carbonization. 
To some extent this may be helped by feeding an ounce 
of wood alcohol into each cylinder at the end of a run, 
and allowing it to exert its solvent action over night. 
Much of the carbon will then be blown out at the next 
start. 

All signs point to the general necessity for vaporiza¬ 
tion of the heavier oils, and manufacturers are on the 
alert for anything promising results in this direction. 


CHAPTER III. 
ALCOHOL AS FUEL. 


The United States Geological Survey bulletin on 
“Commercial Deductions from Comparisons of Gasoline 
and Alcohol Tests on Internal Combustion Engines/’ 
compiled by Robert M. Strong, gives the results of tests 
which were conducted under the technical direction of 
R. H. Fernald, engineer in charge of the Producer Gas 
Section of the Technologic Branch at the fuel testing 
plant at Norfolk, Va., and in St. Louis, Mo. These te^ts 
were held to determine the relative economy and effi¬ 
ciency of gasoline compared with denatured alcohol. By 
the use of alcohol engines suited to that class of fuel as 
much efficiency has been obtained, gallon for gallon, as 
with gasoline fuel. 

On this point, the bulletin states: “By using alcohol 
in an alcohol engine with a high degree of compression 
(about 180 lbs. per square inch above atmospheric pres¬ 
sure—much higher than can be used for gasoline on ac¬ 
count of pre-ignition from the high temperature produced 
by compression) the fuel consumption rate in gallons 
per horse power hour can be reduced to practically the 
same as the rate of consumption of gasoline for a gaso¬ 
line engine of the same size and speed. The indications 
are that this possible 1 to 1 fuel consumption, ratio by 
volume, for gasoline and alcohol engines, will hold true 
for any size or speed, if the cylinder dimensions and rev¬ 
olutions per minute of the two engines are the same.” 


24 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


25 


Some of the more important results and conclusions 
stated in this bulletin are as follows: 

The low heating value of completely denatured alcohol 
will average 10,500 B.t.u. per pound, or 71,900 B.t.u. 
per gallon. 

The low heating value of 0.71 to 0.73 specific gravity 
gasoline will average 19,200 B.t.u. per pound, or 115,800 
B.t.u. per gallon. 

The low heating value of a pound of alcohol is approx¬ 
imately 0.6 the low heating value of a pound of gasoline. 
A pound of gasoline requires approximately twice as 
much weight of air for complete combustion as a pound 
of alcohol. 

A gasoline engine having a compression pressure of 
70 lbs., but otherwise as well suited to the economical 
use of denatured alcohol as gasoline, will, when using 
alcohol, have an available horse power about 10 per cent 
greater than when using gasoline. 

When the fuels for which they are designed are used 
to equal advantage, the maximum available horse power 
of an alcohol engine having a compression pressure of 
180 lbs. is about 30 per cent greater than that of a 
gasoline engine having a compression pressure of 70 lbs., 
but of the same size in respect to cylinder diameter, 
stroke and speed. 

Alcohol diluted with water in any proportion, from 
denatured alcohol, which contains about 10 per cent of 
water, to mixtures containing about as much water as 
denatured alcohol, can be used in gasoline and alcohol 
engines if they are properly equipped and adjusted. 

When used in an engine having a constant degree of 
compression, the amount of pure alcohol required for 
any given load increases and the maximum available 


26 


TRACTION FARMING 


horse power of the engine decreases with a diminution 
in the percentage of pure alcohol in the diluted alcohol 
supplied. The rate of increase and decrease respectively 
is such, however, that the use of 80 per cent alcohol in¬ 
stead of 90 per cent, or denatured alcohol, has but little 
effect upon the performance of the engine; so that if 80 
per cent alcohol can be had for 15 per cent less cost than 
90 per cent alcohol and could be sold without tax when 
denatured, it would be more economical to use the 80 
per cent alcohol. 

In regard to general cleanliness, such as absence of 
smoke and disagreeable odors, alcohol has many advan¬ 
tages over gasoline or kerosene as a fuel. The exhaust 
from an alcohol engine is never clouded with a black or 
grayish smoke, as is the exhaust of a gasoline or kerosene 
engine when the combustion of the fuel is incomplete, 
and, it is seldom, if ever, clouded with a bluish smoke 
when a cylinder oil of too low a fire test is used or an 
excessive amount supplied, as is so often the case with 
a gasoline engine. The odors of denatured alcohol and 
the exhaust gases from an alcohol engine are also not 
likely to be as obnoxious as the odor of gasoline and its 
products of combustion. 

Denatured alcohol will, however, probably not be used 
for power purposes to any great extent until its price 
and the price of gasoline become equal and the equality 
of gasoline and alcohol engines in respect to ability for 
service required and quantity of fuel consumed per brake 
horse power, which has been demonstrated to be pos¬ 
sible, becomes more generally realized. 

A further general development in the design and con¬ 
struction of engines that use kerosene or cheaper distil¬ 
lates, and the crude petroleum may be reasonably ex- 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


27 


pected and may delay the extensive use of denatured al¬ 
cohol for some time to come, but as yet comparatively 
few data pertaining to this phase of the general investi¬ 
gation are available. 

The following conclusions regarding the use of alcohol 
as fuel for engines as compared with gasoline are based 
upon the preliminary results of a series of experiments 
conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: 

(1) Any engine on the American market today, oper¬ 
ating with gasoline or kerosene, can operate with alcohol 
fuel without any structural change whatever with proper 
manipulation. 

(2) Alcohol contains approximately .6 of the heating 
value of gasoline by weight, and in the Department’s 
experiments a small engine required 1.8 times as much 
alcohol as gasoline per hour. This corresponds closely 
with the relative heating value of the two fuels, indicat¬ 
ing practically the same thermal efficiency with the two 
when vaporization is complete. 

(3) In some cases carbureters designed for gasoline, 
do not vaporize all the alcohol supplied, and in such cases 
the excess of alcohol consumed is greater than that in¬ 
dicated above. 

(4) The absolute excess of alcohol consumed over 
gasoline or kerosene will be reduced by such changes as 
will increase the thermal efficiency of the engine. 

(5) The thermal efficiency of these engines can be im¬ 
proved when they are to be operated by alcohol, first, by 
altering the construction of the carbureter to accomplish 
complete vaporization, and second, by materially increas¬ 
ing the compression. 

(6) An engine designed for gasoline or kerosene can, 
without any material alterations to adapt it to alcohol, 


28 


TRACTION FARMING 


give slightly more power (about 10 per cent) than when 
operated with gasoline or kerosene, but this increase is 
at the expense of greater consumption of fuel. By al¬ 
terations designed to adapt the engine to new fuel, this 
excess of power may be increased to about 20 per cent. 

(7) Because of the increased output, without corres¬ 
ponding increase in size, alcohol engines should sell for 
less per horse power than gasoline .or kerosene engines 
of the same class. 

(8) The different designs of gasoline or kerosene en¬ 
gines are not equally well adapted to the burning of al¬ 
cohol, though all may burn it with a fair degree of 
success. 

(9) Storage of alcohol and its use in engines is much 
less dangerous than that of gasoline, as well as being 
decidedly more pleasant. 

(10) The exhaust from an alcohol engine is less likely 
to be offensive than the exhaust from a gasoline or kero¬ 
sene engine, although there will be some odor, due to 
lubricating oil and imperfect combustion, if the engine 
is not skillfully operated. 

(11) It requires no more skill to operate an alcohol 
engine than one intended for gasoline or kerosene. 

(12) There is no reason to suppose that the cost of 
repairs and lubrication will be any greater for an alcohol 
engine than for one built for gasoline or kerosene. 

(13) There seems to be no tendency for the interior 
of an alcohol engine to become sooty, as is the case with 
gasoline and kerosene. 

(14) With proper manipulation, there seems to be no 
undue corrosion of the interior due to the use of alcohol. 

(15) The fact that the exhaust from the alcohol en¬ 
gine is not as hot as that from gasoline and kerosene 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


29 


engines seems to indicate that there will be less danger 
from lire, less offense in a room traversed by the ex¬ 
haust pipe, and less possibility of burning the lubricat¬ 
ing oil. This latter point is also borne out by the fact 
that the exhaust shows less smokiness. 

(16) In localities where there is a supply of cheap raw 
material for the manufacture of denatured alcohol, and 
which are at the same time remote from the source of 
supply of gasoline, alcohol may immediately compete 
with gasoline as a fuel for engines. 

(17) If, as time goes on, kerosene and its distillates 
become scarcer and dearer by reason of exhaustion of 
natural deposits, the alcohol engine will become a 
stronger and stronger competitor, with a possibility that 
in time it may entirely supplant the kerosene and gaso¬ 
line engines. 

(18) By reason of its greater safety and its adapta¬ 
bility to the work, alcohol should immediately supplant 
gasoline for use in boats. 

(19) By reason of cleanliness in handling the fuel, 
increased safety in fuel storage, and less offensiveness in 
the exhaust, alcohol engines will, in part, displace gaso¬ 
line engines for automobile work, but only when cost of 
fuel for operation is a subordinate consideration. In this 
field it is impossible to conveniently increase the com¬ 
pression because of starting difficulties, so that the effi¬ 
ciency can not be improved as conveniently as in other 
types of engines. 

(20) In most localities it is unlikely that alcohol power 
will be cheaper or as cheap as gasoline power for some 
time to come. 

Cost of Fuel .—The cost of operating the gasoline farm 
engine is a subject that is receiving not only the attention 


30 


TRACTION FARMING 


of the manufacturers of this type of engine but also of 
the different state agricultural colleges. 

The following is from the pen of Mr. F. R. Crane 
of the Illinois College of Agriculture, and throws con¬ 
siderable light on the subject. 

Mr. Crane says: “Considering the actual fuel used 
in the combustion engine while at work, there is more 
expense incurred than there would be in a steam engine 
of the same horse power doing the same work; but, for 
the farmer who wants a power only occasionally, and 
wants it quick and with small attention, the gas engine, 
which consumes fuel only when performing work, is 
far superior and less expensive than the steam engine 
plant, which consumes considerable fuel in getting ready 
for work, and which also requires the constant attention 
of the operator. The leading fuels used in the gas en¬ 
gines are alcohol, coal oil (kerosene) and gasoline. 

“Alcohol can be used in the ordinary gasoline engine 
with a readjustment of the carbureter, allowing a dif¬ 
ferent proportion of air from that used with gasoline 
to mix with the alcohol as it passes into the cylinder. 
Alcohol leaves but little deposit within the cylinder, is 
free from any disagreeable odor, and there is little dan¬ 
ger from fire, but at present prices it is too expensive. 

“Kerosene is a very safe fuel, but full of impurities 
which cause foulness within the cylinder, although this 
can be cared for if attended to as the occasion for clean¬ 
ing arises. The present price of kerosene makes it 
much cheaper than gasoline. 

“It is well to say here that with both alcohol and kero¬ 
sene we ordinarily use gasoline to start the engine and 
warm it up to the point where the alcohol and kerosene 
will form a gas sufficient for running purposes. 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


31 


“Gasoline is the present recognized fuel which is sat¬ 
isfactory and economical. 

“As to the comparative costs of these three fuels, we 
find, from reliable data given out, that under average 
conditions about 1 pint of gasoline will produce one 
horse power per hour; 1.1 pints of kerosene will produce 
the same, and 1.4 pints of alcohol gives an equal horse 
power per hour, or, in other words, one horse power per 
hour can be produced in a gas engine by using approxi¬ 
mately 1 pint of gasoline, 1.1 pints of kerosene, or 1.1 
pints of alcohol. 

“Expressed in terms of money to produce an equal 
power from alcohol, kerosene or gasoline, and to have 
that power cost the same, using as a fuel any of the 
three named, the ratio of their cost per gallon will be ap¬ 
proximately as follows: If gasoline costs 14 cents per 
gallon, then alcohol must cost 10 cents per gallon, and 
kerosene 13 cents per gallon. It is a well known fact 
that under present manufacturing conditions alcohol must 
be sold for at least 30 cents per gallon. This being 
true, gasoline must go to 40 cents per gallon before pres¬ 
ent conditions will admit of the use of denatured al¬ 
cohol. 

“Experimental data brings kerosene within our reach. 
A few satisfactory oil engines are now offered to the 
trade, and the day is not far distant when the oil en¬ 
gine will be extensively used upon the farm.” 

Testing Alcohol as in a Gasoline Engine .—The fol¬ 
lowing is a report of a test made by Professor Charles 
E. Lucke of Columbia University, regarding the use of 
alcohol as compared with gasoline: 

The tests were made on engines intended for burning 


32 


TRACTION FARMING 


either gasoline or kerosene. The dimensions of engine 
No. 1 were 5^2-in. bore by 9-in. stroke and water-cooled. 
The compression as shown by indicator diagrams was 
73 lbs. per sq.in. 

The carbureter is shown in Figure 7. The gov¬ 
ernor is of the hit-and-miss type. The inlet valve is 
operated by suction and is not under the control of the 
cam at any time. The exhaust valve, however, is cam- 
operated by a lever. The action of the governor is as 
follows: When the speed gets too high, the governor 
prevents this valve from closing and at the same time 
a finger prevents the inlet valve from opening. This 
action results in a miss-stroke and during the miss-stroke 
the exhaust gases are drawn into, and expelled succes¬ 
sively from the cylinder, whereas in some types of gas 
engines during a miss-stroke, fresh air is drawn into 
and expelled from the cylinder. 

The carbureter is attached to the inlet opening, and 
is of the constant level overflow type, supplied by a 
pump. 

The fuel rises through the pipe marked “fuel sup¬ 
ply,” Figure 7, over the end of which is a baffle plate 
to prevent splashing and surging. Any excess returns to 
the pump section through the overflow pipe and a cover 
to the chamber permits the operator to observe the level. 
The pump is cam-operated ordinarily, but is so arranged 
that it may be operated by hand in starting. The spray 
orifice is controlled by a needle valve having a numbered 
head and pointer. This needle valve is arranged to seat on 
the spray orifice, which is about one-half inch above 
the overflow pipe. The suction of the engine draws air 
through the air-inlet pipe, past a damper or valve for 
the regulation of the vacuum in the carbureter, and 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


33 



FIGURE 7. Carbureter. 































































































































34 


TRACTION FARMING 


thence upward to the right-angle bend across which it 
meets the fuel spray and passes to the engine suction. 
In starting the engine the piston speed is so slow, as it is 
turned over by hand, as to make it difficult to obtain a 
vacuum in the carbureter sufficient to lift the fuel the 
one-half inch between the overflow level and the spray 
orifice, and in addition spray it into the air. To make 
this easier, the damper or vacuum-regulating valve shown 
in cross-sections, is added. By closing it at the start, 
the vacuum may be increased and the fuel easily sprayed. 
All of the air used by the engine passes through the 
carbureter chamber and meets the spray at the orifice. 

Description of Tests .—It became clear during the tests 
on the engine that an apparently insignificant change in 
the carbureter setting might possibly have a very large 
efifect on the fuel consumption. It also became clear 
that the adjustment of the igniter and carbureter were 
matters of much greater importance in fuel economy than 
a considerable change in compression. To put it other¬ 
wise, increasing the compression of an engine using al¬ 
cohol fuel for the purpose of obtaining a gain in economy, 
might be entirely useless if the engine is unskill fully 
handled, but in spite of considerable care in determining 
the best adjustment, it is not always easy to determine 
when it has been reached. 

The operation of starting the engine was the same 
whether gasoline or alcohol was used as a fuel, and was 
no more difficult with one fuel than with the other after 
the proper fuel valve settings for each had been learned. 

Of the fifty-four consumption tests made with this en¬ 
gine, twenty-four were made with gasoline as fuel and 
thirty with alcohol. The results are thus summarized: 

Summary of Tests. —(1) With both alcohol and gaso- 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


35 


line fuel, from half load to full load, the best consump¬ 
tions were obtained with the smallest needle-valve set¬ 
tings which could be used with the respective fuels and 
loads. 

(2) With both alcohol and gasoline fuel, by opening 
the needle-valve the consumption could be increased to 
approximately twice the best consumption before the en¬ 
gine would be stopped by the excess of fuel. 

(3) With both alcohol and gasoline, the most rapid 
combustion, the highest mean effective pressure and the 
highest maximum pressure were obtained when the fuel 
used was considerably in excess of the best consumption. 

(4) With both alcohol and gasoline, the amount of 
fuel used with any given load was approximately pro¬ 
portional to the needle-valve setting. 

(5) The minimum needle-valve setting for alcohol 
was about double the minimum setting for gasoline, and 
about equal to the maximum setting possible for the same 
load with gasoline. 

(G) With alcohol fuel, using a slow-burning dilute 
fuel mixture, the consumption was perceptibly improved 
by using a very early ignition. 

(7) The mean effective pressure, and the maximum 
explosion pressure were about the same for both alcohol 
and gasoline at best consumption. 

(8) The highest mean effective pressures obtained 
with alcohol were appreciably greater than the highest 
obtained with gasoline. 

(9) The maximum power obtainable from the engine 
was appreciably higher with alcohol than with gasoline. 

(10) Much more alcohol could be supplied to the 
engine cylinder than would be vaporized in the carbu¬ 
reter, so that liquid alcohol entered the cylinder. 


36 


TRACTION FARMING 


(11) With alcohol the engine would run on a greater 
range of misadjustment than with gasoline. 

(12) The best consumption results obtained were 
0.69 lbs. of gasoline and 1.23 lbs. of alcohol, respectively, 
per brake horse power hour. 

(13) At best consumptions the mean effective pres¬ 
sures were 90 lbs. for both alcohol and gasoline. 

Conclusions .—The following general conclusions are 
drawn as a result of the investigations not only with 
the engines described, but with many others: 

(1) Any gasoline engine of the ordinary types can 
be run on alcohol fuel without any material change in 
the construction of the engine. The only difficulties like¬ 
ly to be encountered are in starting and in supplying a 
sufficient quantity of fuel, a quantity which must be 
considerably greater than the quantity of gasoline re¬ 
quired. 

(2) When an engine is run on alcohol its operation is 
more noiseless than when running on gasoline, its max¬ 
imum power is usually materially higher than it is on 
gasoline and there is no danger of any injurious ham¬ 
mering with alcohol such as may occur with gasoline. 

(3) For automobile air-cooled engines, alcohol seems 
to be especially adapted as a fuel, since the temperature 
of the engine cylinder may rise much higher before 
auto-ignition takes place than is possible with gasoline 
fuel, and if auto-ignition of the alcohol fuel does not 
occur, no injurious hammering can result. 

(4) The consumption of fuel in pounds per brake 
horse power, whether the fuel is gasoline or alcohol, 
depends chiefly upon the horse power at which the en¬ 
gine is being run and upon the setting of the fuel sup¬ 
ply valve. It is easily possible for the fuel consumption 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


37 


per horse power hour to be increased to double the 
best value, either by running the engine on a load below 
its full power or by a poor setting of the fuel supply 
valve. 

(5) These investigations also showed that the fuel 
consumption was affected by the time of ignition, by the 
speed, and by the initial compression of the fuel charge. 
No tests were made to determine the maximum pos¬ 
sible change in fuel consumption that could be produced 
by changing the time of ignition, but when near the 
best fuel consumption it was shown to be important to 
have an early ignition. So far as tested the alcohol 
fuel consumption was better at low than at high speeds. 
So far as investigated, increasing the initial compression 
from 70 to 125 lbs. produced only a very slight improve¬ 
ment in the consumption of alcohol. 

(6) It is probable that for any given engine the fuel 
consumption is also affected by the quantity and tem¬ 
perature of cooling water used and the nature of the cool¬ 
ing system by the type of ignition apparatus, by the 
quantity and quality of lubricating oil, by the temperature 
and humidity of the atmosphere, and by the initial tem¬ 
perature of the fuel. 

(7) It seems probable that all well-constructed en¬ 
gines of the same size will have approximately the same 
fuel consumption when working under the most ad¬ 
vantageous conditions. 

(8) With any good small stationary engine as small a 
fuel consumption as 0.70 lb. of gasoline, or 1.16 lbs. of 
alcohol per brake horse power hour may reasonably be 
expected under favorable conditions. These values cor¬ 
respond to 0.118 and 0.170 gallon respectively, or 0.95 
pint of gasoline and 1.36 pints of alcohol. Based on 


38 


TRACTION FARMING 


the high calorific values of 21,120 B.t.u. per pound of 
gasoline and 11,880 per pound of alcohol, these consump¬ 
tions represent thermal efficiencies of 17.2 per cent for 
gasoline and 18.5 per cent for alcohol. 

But calculated on the basis of the low calorific values 
of 19,600 B.t.u. per pound for gasoline and 10,620 for 
alcohol, the thermal efficiencies become 18.5 for the for¬ 
mer fuel and 20.7 for alcohol. The ratio of the high 
calorific values used above is, gasoline to alcohol, 1.78. 



FIGURE 8. 


The corresponding ratio of the low calorific values 
is 1.85. The ratio of the consumptions mentioned above 
is alcohol to gasoline, 1.66 by weight, or 1.44 by volume. 

Testing Oil as a Fuel .—Figure 8 is a sectional view 
of one of the engines under test, and shows its work¬ 
ing parts. This engine was tested by using oil instead 









































































ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


39 


of gasoline or alcohol for fuel. It is a single cylinder, 
horizontal engine, two-cycle, with crankcase compression. 
The head-end compression, as determined from indica¬ 
tor cards, is 84 lbs. per square inch. It is rated at 6 
h.p. at 360 r.p.m., having a cylinder diameter of 7 ins. 
and a stroke of 8 ins. The engine has no carbureter, 
but is fitted with a separate vaporizing chamber. Oil is 
supplied to a pump on top of the engine, which delivers 
it directly through pipe A to the vaporizer lip B. This 
pump also has a hand-operated handle C to deliver oil 
in starting. 

When the piston moves away from the shaft two 
things happen. First, in the motor cylinder compression 
takes place; second, in the crankcase the air expands to 
below atmospheric pressure. When the open end of the 
piston reaches the port in the bottom of the cylinder, 
marked “suction port,” air rushes in to fill the vacuum 
produced in the crankcase during the early part of this 
stroke. About the same time that compression has been 
completed in the head-end of the cylinder, the air has 
carried the liquid fuel from the vaporizer lip into the 
bulb D, where the fuel is vaporized, mixed with the air, 
and the mixture finally ignited. 

Under the influence of the high pressure resulting 
from this explosion, the piston moves forward until the 
bottom of the piston on its head-end uncovers the port 
marked E, which is the exhaust port. 

Immediately the pressure in the cylinder drops to at¬ 
mospheric pressure, and the top edge of the piston moves 
to, and uncovers a port on the top of the cylinder, which 
allows the compressed air in the crankcase to rush into 
the head-end of the cylinder, ready for compression on 
the return stroke. 


CHAPTER IV. 


KEROSENE AS FUEL FOR TRACTION ENGINES. 

Kerosene is a good power fuel when compared with 
gasoline (1) because it is cheaper; (2) because it is not 
dangerously explosive; (3) because it will not waste by 
evaporation, and (4) because it can be purchased of 
every cross-road merchant. 

As a rule there is no change necessary in the engine 
or carbureter, both handling kerosene and gasoline alike 
for fuel, with the exception that for kerosene a little 
water sprayed with each charge into the intake or suc¬ 
tion current aids in the ignition and combustion of kero¬ 
sene, which is not necessary in the use of gasoline. 
Where kerosene has been tried, in many instances com¬ 
plaint was made of the strong kerosene odor from the 
exhaust which was also reported as entirely or partially 
overcome by the use of the water spray. With no other 
change to the regular gasoline equipment than the kero¬ 
sene supply tank and pipe and small jet and pump for 
spraying a small quantity of water into each charge or 
suction current, the gasoline engine has been converted 
into a kerosene fuel engine which appears to be the 
equal in power development, running qualities, economy, 
etc., of the gasoline fuel engine. 

It is better to run the cylinder from 20 to 30 degrees 
hotter when using kerosene, and for this reason it is 
often advisable to stagnate the cooling circulation to a 


40 


KEROSENE AS FUEL FOR TRACTION ENGINES 41 


considerable degree. It is also generally agreed that 
kerosene will give better results under about 70 to 80 
lbs. per square inch compression than under a lower com¬ 
pression. Many gasoline engines do not carry over 50 or 
60 lbs. compression pressure, although a gasoline engine 
constructed for 70 lbs. compression will get more power 
from the gasoline used than when only 50 or 60 lbs. are 
had. A cross tee in the supply pipe next to the carbu¬ 
reter with one pipe leading to the gasoline tank and an¬ 
other to the kerosene supply tank with a shut off valve 
in each will enable the operator to feed gasoline or 
kerosene to his engine at will. It is generally the custom 



FIGURE 9. 

Hydrocarbon Gas Producer. 


to start the engine on gasoline, since gasoline ignites 
more readily in a cool cylinder, and run it thus until the 
cylinder is well heated up, then turn on the kerosene and 
shut off the gasoline and the engine will usually run on 
without missing. When there is a little “chug” noticed 
in the cylinder the water spray pump may be started and 
by feeding this spray more or less freely the chug 







42 


TRACTION FARMING 


may be arrested and the explosions occur as smoothly and 
regularly as when gasoline is the fuel. 

Kerosene Gas Producer for Gasoline Engines .—Figure 
9 shows a gas producer that is applicable to either sta¬ 
tionary or traction engines, and to produce perfect com¬ 
bustion of the fuel, and thus insure a smokeless exhaust 
and clean cylinders. 

This device is known as a hydrocarbon gas producer. 
It is cylindrical in shape, about 14-ins. long and G-ins. in 
diameter. It has no moving parts, and, when once at¬ 
tached to the engine, becomes a permanent, fixture and 
requires no attention whatever. When it is installed 
on an engine, the fuel is drawn through an atomizer and 
induced by the suction of the engine to go through pas¬ 
sages heated by the exhaust, so that the action is en¬ 
tirely automatic and the fuel supply is in proportion 
to the demands of the engine under all conditions of 
speed and load. By means of a hydrocarbon gas pro¬ 
ducer, any two-cycle or four-cycle gasoline engine of 
standard make may be run with kerosene as a fuel, with 
perfect combustion, no increase in fuel consumption, and 
no decrease in power. 


CHAPTER V. 


BALANCING OF ENGINES. 

Engines having only one cylinder as shown in Figure 
10 may be balanced to some extent by the judicious use 
of counterweights placed either directly opposite to the 
crank, or else placed opposite to the crank in the fly¬ 
wheels. 

The effect of these counterweights is to set up an 
oppositely acting force which attains its maximum value 
at the instant the pistons and connecting-rod come to 
rest. Thus one force acting in one direction is made 
to offset another, and presumably equal force acting in 
the opposite direction. The result is a nullification of 
both forces and consequent lack of vibration of the en¬ 
gine frame. To this condition is added the steadying ef¬ 
fect of very heavy flywheels which serve to absorb energy 
during the idle strokes of the engine. A perfect, or 
in fact, a near approach to perfect absorption of vibra¬ 
tion by this means would require the engine to run at 
constant speed, since a change in speed changes the in¬ 
tensity of the centrifugal forces set up by the revolving 
weights, in a different ratio from the way in which the 
forces due to the reciprocating forces change. Con¬ 
sequently an engine of this type can be balanced correctly 
for only one speed, and will vibrate more and more as 
the speed varies from the standard. The difficulty in- 


43 


44 


TRACTION FARMING 


herent in the single cylinder engine has led to the general 
adoption of engines having two or more cylinders. In 
multiple cylinder engines, as they are called, the pistons 
and reciprocating parts can be so arranged that they 
move in opposite directions, and, if care is taken to 
make these parts of equal weight, they will counter¬ 
balance each other at any speed and thus reduce vibra¬ 
tion to a very small amount. 

This is the plan adopted in all double opposed en¬ 
gines of the horizontal type and is found to be quite 
satisfactory for all low powered engines. The pistons 




CHANKS OH SAME 6/HE 


tfoorcYL. 

Off OCR OF STROKES 

1 

~p 

JE 

JS 

c 


NO -OF 
CYL'jS 

OB DEN OF S T7JOKLS 

1 

T 


jS 

c 

z 

s 

C 

J? 

JE 


FIGURE 10. 


FIGURE 11. 


are placed horizontally on each side of the crankshaft, 
with their open ends opposite each other. The cranks 
are placed 180 degrees apart, or, in other words, on 
exactly opposite sides of the crankshaft. Thus both 
pistons reach the head-ends of their respective cylinders 



































BALANCING OF ENGINES 


45 


at the same instant, but travel in opposite directions to 
do so. Thus the shock occasioned by bringing one piston 
to rest is offset by the other. 

Figures 10, 11, 12 and 13 show single-cylinder and 
two-cylinder crank arrangements, while Figure 14 shows 
a quadruple-cylinder engine with the cranks arranged in 
such a manner that the engine will make a power stroke 


1 Z 



MO.OFCYU 

oiwzn or <stt?oh£s 

1 

~P 

B 

S 

c 

z 

AVI 

C 

7 > 

JE 

£ 


£ 

£ 

C 

~P 


FIGURE 12. 



KO Or CYl’S 

or or 

ST/70HZS 

1 


Z 

S 

c 

z 

* ‘OH 

£ 

C 


£ 

£ 

£ 

C 



FIGURE 13. 


during each revolution. In the table accompanying each 
illustration, P represents the power stroke, E exhaust, 
S suction, and C compression. An outward stroke must 
be either a power stroke or a suction stroke, and an in¬ 
ward stroke either exhaust or compression. It will be 
observed that with this arrangement of cylinders a power 
stroke can be made to occur during each revolution, if 
the valves and cams are set properly. The upper set 
of events opposite 2 in the table under Figure 14 shows 





































46 


TRACTION FARMING 


the correct arrangement, while the lower set of events 
shows a faulty arrangement, since it brings both power 
strokes in the same revolution. 

Two-cylinder engines are often placed vertically, side 
by side, as indicated in Figures 11 and 12. Two arrange¬ 
ments of the cranks are possible with this construction. 
They may be placed opposite or 180 degrees apart, or on 
the same side of the shaft in which case they are said 
to be 360 degrees apart. The order of strokes for both 
cases is clearly indicated in the figures. In Figure 11, 


Am 



HO. or CYLi 

OHDtn OF S7F0A6.S 

1 

T 

V 

X 

£ 

c 

2 

\ 

X 


C 

P 

3 

C 

Ps 


S 

4 

aS 

c 

y 

£ 


FIGURE 14. 


there is a power stroke once in each revolution. The 
table shows an idle stroke in each cylinder between the 
power strokes, but in Figure 12 both power strokes occur 
in a single revolution, while the other revolution is idle 
during both strokes in the two cylinders. 

In the arrangement shown in Figure 11, the recipro- 

















BALANCING OF ENGINES 


47 


eating forces are not balanced, while in Figure 12 they 
are. However, of the two, the former is preferable, 
since it gives a steadier motion to the crankshaft and 
counterweights may be used to offset the unbalanced 
forces due to the reciprocating parts. 

Of the three arrangements of the two cylinders, the 
horizontal double opposed is preferable, and possesses 
greater advantages. An inspection of the table in con¬ 
nection with Figure 14 will show that the order of firing 
is 1, 3, 4, 2 which is the way the majority of this type 
of engines are adjusted. 


CHAPTER VI. 


PISTON RINGS. 

The gas engine piston, like the steam engine piston, 
is fitted with rings. The piston itself is of necessity 
smaller in diameter than the cylinder, otherwise it would 
be impossible for it to serve its purpose. While 
the piston is only a very small fraction of an inch smaller 
than toe cylinder, from .02 to .03 of an inch, according to 
the size of the cylinder, this difference is quite sufficient 
to allow the escape of the power force unless there is 
provision made to close up this differencee in diameters. 
This, then, is the office or function of the piston rings. 
Usually from two to four of these rings are fitted onto 
the piston. 

The ring is machined from a cast iron ring blank 
and just wide and thick enough to fit snugly into the 
groove in the piston. The outside diameter of the ring 
is somewhat larger than the bore of the cylinder so 
that when a piece from one-half to one inch long is cut 
out of the ring and the ends sprung together and the 
outer circumference again turned to a complete circle, 
it will just fit the cylinder when the cut ends are held 
snugly together. Then by springing the ring open enough 
to slip it over the piston and pushing it along until it 
reaches one of the grooves it will snap into the groove. 
Each groove in the piston is fitted with a ring in this 


48 


PISTON RINGS 


49 


way. Some manufacturers think it best to let the rings 
play at will in the circumference of the groove, while 
others stay them by means of a pin fastened at a point 
in the center of the bottom of the groove, preferably on 
the under side of the piston. This pin stands up to near¬ 
ly the height of the piston surface, and either a small 
hole, the size of the pin, is drilled into the ring, or the 
ends are cut in a manner to receive the pin, see Figure 
16, so as to stay the ring in its groove and hold the 
parted ends of the ring in the same position in the cylin¬ 
der circumference. The pin for each ring may be so 
placed as to hold the cut or open ends of the rings at a 
point about one-third of the circumference of the piston 





Top, FIGURE 15. 
Bottom, FIGURE 16. 
Piston Rings. 


from the several ends of the other rings. This is what 
is known as breaking joints and insures against a di¬ 
rect line of escape in case any of the ring joints should 
leak. 

There are two methods of cutting the rings. One 





























































50 


TRACTION FARMING 


makes a diagonal joint, as shown in Figure 16, the other 
a lap joint, as shown at the top in Figure 15. Either 
of these makes an effective joint, if carefully done, and 
not too much of the ring is cut out. 

By this time it is no doubt plainly evident to the 
reader how the ring serves its purpose due to the fact 
that when the ring is first turned, its outside diameter 
is larger than the cylinder diameter and in this condi¬ 
tion it could, of course, never enter the cylinder opening. 
To bring the diameter of the ring down to that of the 
cylinder, however, a piece is taken out of the ring and 
the ends sprung together. This reduces the ring diam¬ 
eter, but it also changes it from a true circle, which 
it was before the part was cut out and the ends pressed 
together, to an oval or oblong shape. Since the bore of 
the cylinder is supposed to be a true circle, something 
else is necessary to make the ring fit the cylinder. Con¬ 
sequently, all manufacturers who want to make their 
rings most effective clamp the rings with their ends 
together and turn their outer circumference again to 
a true circle so that its diameter is but a very small frac¬ 
tion less than that of the cylinder. By this means a 
perfect ring with an outward spring is made, which fits 
snugly to the walls of the cylinder when it is adjusted 
to the piston groove. It is therefore readily seen how 
such rings will fit the cylinder so snugly as to close 
up any space between piston and cylinder walls and there¬ 
by prevent the escape of the explosive force and help 
in distributing the lubricating oil to all parts of the 

cvlinder. 

* 

Two styles of rings are shown in Figure 15; one being 
of uniform thickness and the other extra heavy on the 
bottom, 


PISTON RINGS 


51 


Properly working piston rings are fuel and power 
savers. Improperly working rings are wasteful both of 
power and fuel, as well as lubricating oil, which often re¬ 
sults in serious damage to the cylinder. It is therefore 
important to keep ring grooves clean and the rings work¬ 
ing perfectly. 


i 


CHAPTER VII. 


VALVES. 

A valve in a very bad or pitted condition 
causes bad compression and the exhaust valve should be 
ground occasionally. After grinding a valve be sure 
that there is ample clearance between the valve and the 
lifter. It should have not less than one-thirty-second of 
an inch, otherwise when the valve becomes hot it will 
not seat properly, poor compression being the result. 
In grinding a valve there is no occasion to use force, 
and the grinding should be done lightly, the valve being 
lifted from time to time so that any foreign substance in 
the emery will not cut a ridge in the seat or the valve 
itself. After grinding a valve always wash out the 
valve seat with a little kerosene and be careful that 
none of the emery is allowed to get into the engine 
cylinder. 

Sometimes an engine may suddenly stop from the 
failure of a valve to seat properly. This may be due to 
the warping of the valve through the engine having run 
dry and become hot, or it may be from the failure of the 
valve spring or th*e sticking of the valve stem in its 
guides. The valve should be removed and the stem 
cleaned and scraped, or straightened if it requires it, 
until it moves freely in the guide, and the spring is 


52 


VALVES 


53 


given its full tension. If the valve still leaks so that 
the engine will not start or develop sufficient power, the 
valve will have to be ground into its seat. 

Valves which need re-seating should first be ground 
in place with fine emery and oil, then finished with tripoli 
and water. 

Valves and Valve Chambers .—The dimensions of the 
inlet and exhaust valve openings are governed by the 
diameter of the cylinder and the piston velocity in feet 
per minute. The form of valve chamber in general use 
is made separate and bolted to the cylinder. The valve 
chamber can then be entirely renewed if necessary and 
at small expense. Other forms of valve chambers have 
the valves placed horizontally in the cylinder head. In 
any case the valves should be brought as close as possible 
to the inside of the cylinder, the clearance space in the 
ports being reduced to a minimum. 

In engines of large size the inlet and exhaust valve 
chamber is surrounded by a water jacket, which main¬ 
tains its proper temperature and prevents the valve 
seats being warped from overheating, which might other¬ 
wise occur. 

When the inlet valve is atmospherically or suction op¬ 
erated, it is opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder 
during the suction period, and closed by a spring. The 
inlet and exhaust valve openings are usually made of 
such a diameter that the velocity of the gas as it enters 
the cylinder is about 100 ft. per second, the velocity of 
the exhaust gases through the exhaust opening being 
about 80 ft. per second. 

Diameter and Lift of Valves .—To ascertain the proper 
diameter of inlet and exhaust valve openings and the lift 
of the valve to give an opening equal to the area of the 


54 


TRACTION FARMING 


valve opening, the following formulas will be found use¬ 
ful : 

Let B be the bore of the motor cylinder in inches, 
and S the stroke of the piston also in inches. As R is 
the number of revolutions per minute and D the re¬ 
quired diameter of the valve opening, then 

BXSXR 

D=- 

15,000 

Example: Required the diameter of the admission- 
valve opening for a motor of 6-in. bore and 9-in. stroke 
at 600 r.p.m. 

Answer: As 6 multiplied by 9 and by 600 equals 
32,400, then 32,400 divided by 15,000 gives 2.16 ins. as 
the diameter of the valve opening. 

The lift of the 45-degree bevel-seat form of valve re¬ 
quires to be about three-eighths of the diameter of the 
valve opening: that is, if L is the required lift of the 
valve and D the diameter of the valve opening, then 

D 

L=-=0.35 D 

2.83 

The bevel-seat form of valve is to be preferred to the 
flat-seat or mushroom type of valve, for two reasons; 
first, that it is more readily kept in shape by re-grinding, 
and second, it gives a freer and more direct passage for 
the gases. 

For an atmospherically operated admission-valve which 
will insure practically a full charge in the motor cylinder 
the formula should be 

BXSXR 

D=- 


12,750 





VALVES 


55 


Both inlet and exhaust valves should be of ample area 
and short lift, and be arranged so that they may be read¬ 
ily inspected and adjusted, and with as few joints as 
possible. 

Valve Lifters .—Figure 17 illustrates a form of valve 
operating mechanism in which the valve is actuated by 
means of a roller upon the end of a rocker arm, to 



FIGURE 17. 

Valve Lifter and Roller Lever with Hardened Steel Lifter 

Plate. 


the upper side of which is secured a hardened steel 
plate, which in most cases acts directly upon the end 
of the valve stem. 

Another form of valve lifter is shown in Figure 18 in 
which the rocker arm is omitted, the cam operating the 
valve through the medium of a plunger rod and roller. 






56 


TRACTION FARMING 


Valve Operating Mechanism .—A form of valve op¬ 
erating mechanism is shown in Figure 19, in which both 
the inlet and exhaust valves are operated independently 
by means of a rocker-shaft and lifting-arms, through the 
medium of two cam-rods and levers shown at the right 
of the drawing. The lifter-arm and cam-rod lever of 
the inlet valve are in one piece, and work free on the 
end of the rocker shaft. 



figure is. 

Valve Lifter with Cam Acting Directly on the Lifter. 


Fit of Valve Stems .—The inlet and exhaust valve 
stems should not be a very close fit in their guides. If 
the fit in these guides is made too close, when the valve 
chamber becomes heated the consequent expansion may 
cause the valve stem to stick in the guides and leakage 
of the valve will result. 

The valve seats are in some engines left almost sharp, 
being not more than one-sixteenth of an inch wide be¬ 
fore grinding. 

Timing of Valves .—The movement of the valves should 










VALVES 


57 


always be timed to give the proper results. This is an 
important point to remember. The camshaft on a four¬ 
cycle engine is usually driven by the two to one gear 
on the crankshaft, and if for any reason the gears are 
taken apart and put together, with only one tooth out of 
place, it will throw the valve mechanism out of time. 

To ascertain if the valves of an engine are properly 



FIGURE 19. 

Valve Operating- Mechanism, Showing Inlet and Exhaust- 

Valves and Lifter Rods. 

timed, turn the flywheel over slowly and notice at what 
points the valves open and close, and when the ignition, 
if electric, takes place. 

The exhaust valve should open when about five-sixths 
of the stroke is completed and close at the end of the next 
stroke. The next inward stroke is the compression 
stroke, when all valves should be closed. At the begin¬ 
ning of the next outward stroke the inlet valve should be 
slightly open. 






































58 


TRACTION FARMING 


If the engine is taken to pieces, it is important that 
a tooth of the gear wheel on the crankshaft and a cor¬ 
responding space of the gear on the camshaft should be 
marked, so that when put together again the same teeth 
may mesh together, and so avoid altering the throw of 
the cams and consequent timing of the valves. 



FIGURE 20 . 


Valve Troubles .—Some of the things that may happen 
to the valve are: A warped disk, F, Figure 20, which 
would prevent the valve from seating properly; thus 
the compression would escape past to the exhaust. Th'e 
valve stem, H, may become carbonized and fail to work 
free in the guide, in which case it will stick part way 
open and the engine will have little or no compression. 
The valve stem should not be oiled, because of the great 
amount of heat it is subject to. The oil will burn and 










VALVES 


59 


carbonize and in a very short time the valve will fail 
to work. The valve spring needs attention as well as the 
valve itself. It, like the valve, is subject to a certain 
amount of heat and after a time will lose its tension 
and fail to cause the valve to seat properly. In this case 
the spring must be replaced with a new one, but if no 
new one is at hand the old one may be taken off and 
stretched until it gives the required tension. A point 
which affects power and must not be overlooked is the 
distance between the valve stem and the lift. In case 
the valve lift should not raise the valve high enough 
to allow a full charge to enter the cylinder, or the burned 
charge to be driven from the cylinder the engine would 
run very well when empty, but when the power was 
applied would die down at once. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


LEAKY PISTONS. 

Leaky pistons are not only annoying, but exceedingly 
wasteful of fuel and power. In a closed base engine, 
such as a two-cycle or multiple cylinder automobile 
motor, it is not always easy to determine where the 
trouble is and what is the real cause of it. A leak 
past the piston may result from ill-fitting rings, or from 
clogged rings, from a scored or scratched cylinder wall, 
from a puncture in the piston walls or in the head. 
Whatever the cause, much damage may finally result if 
allowed to continue any length of time. When a leak 
by any portion of the piston wall occurs it not only 
allows the escape of the expansive force, but it also 
causes a prompt drying up of the lubrication along the 
overheated path of the escape. And the moment lubrica¬ 
tion is checked and becomes ineffective scoring of the 
cylinder is liable to begin. And when the friction once 
becomes so great that the walls of the cylinder begin 
to cut or score they will be quickly damaged and often 
beyond repair. 

A leak resulting from poorly fitted piston rings may 
be distinguished by dark colored sections along the 
course of the outer circumference of the ring. A ring 
that fits the cylinder perfectly is bright and smooth in 
its entire circumference. But one that is bright only in 
spots on its circumference, in reality, only touches the 
walls of the cylinder in spots. This indicates that either 


60 


LEAKY PISTONS 


61 


the cylinder is not round or that the rings are not 
properly fitted to the cylinder. 

In boring out a cylinder, by the dulling of the tool, 
as it takes its cut from one end of the cylinder, it may 
leave the end where the cut is finished smaller than the 
other. Consequently a piston and rings that will fit the 
small end will be too small for the other end of the 
cylinder and will therefore usually allow the escape of 
the explosive force. A cylinder should not only be a 
true circle on its interior diameter, but the circle should 
be of exactly the same diameter from end to end. Prob¬ 
ably next to imperfect fitting rings and cylinder diameter 
the clogged ring gives most trouble. 

Burnt carbon from a poor quality of lubricating oil 
or from too free use of oil or rust or dirt of any kind 
that becomes baked onto the rings may cause them to 
stick tight in their grooves and thus become entirely 
inactive and useless. Sometimes this condition may be 
helped and apparently overcome entirely by injecting 
kerosene into the cylinder. This has a tendency to dis¬ 
solve and soften up the baked carbon which is gradually 
gotten rid of by flushing itself out of the cylinder with 
the surplus kerosene. But many times it is necessary 
to remove the piston from the cylinder and saturate it 
in kerosene until the rings get loose and can be lifted 
from their grooves and be thoroughly cleaned by scrap¬ 
ing and washing with kerosene or gasoline. The grooves 
in the piston should receive the same treatment before 
the rings are replaced in them. 

A puncture in the piston walls or head usually results 
from a sand or blow hole in the casting, or if pins are 
used in the ring grooves to stay the rings, the pin hole 
may extend through the piston wall at the bottom of the 


62 


TRACTION FARMING 


groove and when the pin gets loose and drops out there 
is a leak hole through the bottom of the ring groove. 
The indications of a leaky piston are: Low compression, 
loss of power and a blowing sound in the crankcase when 
the piston is moving in on its compression stroke. The 
correction of the cause, in a leaky piston, promptly, will 
save much worry, fuel, and often much unnecessary ex¬ 
pense. 


CHAPTER IX. 


THE CYLINDER. 

Cylinder Construction .—Cylinders made with a loose 
head require the joint to be made with great care. An 
asbestos or copper ring is used to make this joint and 
sometimes wire gauze with asbestos is used. 



FIGURE 21 . 

Gas or Gasoline Engine Cylinder, with Detachable Water- 

Cooled Head. 


Figure 21 shows a cylinder with a loose water-jacketed 
head in which both the inlet and exhaust valves are 
located. This style of cylinder has feet, or lugs, on 
either side to attach it to the bedplate. 

A form of cylinder is shown in Figure 22 in which 
the cylinder and head are cast in one piece. It has a 
separate valve chamber (not shown) which bolts on 
the side of the cylinder and communicates with the 
combustion chamber by a port or passage shown in the 


63 






64 


TRACTION FARMING 


drawing. This style of cylinder is attached to the bed¬ 
plate by means of a circular sleeve which fits into an 
opening at the end of the bedplate and is drawn up 
against the circular flange shown by means of bolts. 



FIGURE 22. 

Gas or Oil Engine Cylinder, with Cylinder and Head Cast Integral. 

Cylinder Boring .—A good way to bore a cylinder is to 
make a boring-bar to fit in the drill socket of a back- 
geared drili press and a brass or phosphor bronze bush¬ 
ing to fit in the center hole of the table of the drill 
press. The cylinder can be clamped to the table of the 
drill press by its flange and bored out with a cutter set 
in the boring-bar. Not less than three, and preferably 
four cuts, should be taken to make a good job. A man¬ 
drel should then be made with two flanged hubs, one of 
which should be fastened to the mandrel and the other 
turned slightly taper so as to make a snug fit in the 
cylinder bore when in place. The ends of the cylinder 
can then be finished on the mandrel and a perfect job 
will be the result. In case a back-geared drill press 
is not handy the cylinder can be clamped to the carriage 
of the lathe, bored out with a bar in the lathe centers 
and the ends finished in the manner above described, 
but it is a much slower job than in a drill press. The 








THE CYLINDER 


65 


cutter for the bar should be made from a piece of 
round tool steel not less than five-eighths of an inch 
diameter. It can then be readily adjusted to any de¬ 
sired angle to obtain the best cutting effect. 

Cylinder Sweating .—Sometimes water will collect in 
the cylinder as a result of the interior walls of both the 
cylinder and cylinder-head sweating. This, however, does 
not often happen except on very warm days when a 
considerable volume of cold water has been allowed 
to flow through the water-jacket after the engine has 
been shut down, and this seldom applies where the 
thermo-syphon water-cooling system is used. It is more 
liable to happen where the cold water from a hydrant 
has been allowed to flow through the water-jacket. 


CHAPTER X. 


THE CARBURETER OR MIXER. 

The principal difference' between the gas engine and 
those engines, such as gasoline, oil, etc., that, use a liquid 
fuel is, that with the latter the gas is generated within 
the engine itself while in operation, while with the former 
the gas is supplied from outside sources. 

In early gas engine practice a gasoline or oil vapor 
gas was made by passing air in close proximity to a 
large surface of the liquid fuel. The air was thus 
saturated with the vapor of the gasoline or oil, and be¬ 
came a vapor gas similar to artificial or natural gas. This 
vapor gas was piped to the engine and mixed with air in 
proper proportion to secure the quickest and best com¬ 
bustion. This principle of mixng is used now with natu¬ 
ral, artificial and producer gas. The next development in 
the use of liquid fuel was the mixer, or carbureter, by 
which a minute quantity of the gasoline or oil is measured 
and supplied with each charge of air entering the engine 
cylinder. With the stationary, single cylinder, industrial 
engines in common use the device for measuring the 
liquid fuel is called a mixer, and is usually made a part 
of the engine. A gasoline or fuel pump and constant 
level overflow cup is provided so that the gasoline tank 
may be located outside of the building in compliance 
with insurance regulations about the storage of gasoline. 


66 


THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


67 


For multiple cylinder, and lighter engines the measuring 
device is called a carbureter, and is generally an accessory 
to the engine. 

Figure 23 shows the principle of the constant level 
overflow mixer system, commonly employed in the single 
cylinder stationary engine. A is the constant level over¬ 
flow cup, showing how the gasoline or liquid fuel rises 
in the spray nozzle, F, to the same level maintained in 
the cup. B is the pipe from the gasoline pump, and 
C is the overflow pipe that leads the surplus gasoline 
back to the tank. D is the gasoline regulator, E the 
air regulator, F the spray nozzle and G the short passage 



to the inlet valve of the engine. At a given speed the 
engine draws in a certain amount of air by the regulator, 
E. The air rushing past spray nozzle, F, draws a small 
quantity of gasoline, measured by regulator, D, from the 































































f68 


TRACTION FARMING 


spray nozzle, and carries it into the cylinder of the en¬ 
gine. The natural heat in the air supply, assisted by the 
heat of the cylinder, turns the gasoline spray into a gas 
that burns like a flash or “explodes” when compressed 
and ignited by the engine, provided of course that the 
right proportion of air and gasoline has been obtained. 
This is easily known by adjusting the fuel and air regula¬ 
tors, and observing the action of the engine, especially 
under load. The greatest amount of air with the least 



FIGURE 24. 


amount of gasoline for the strongest pull at a given 
speed will be the correct position for the regulators. For 
easy starting the air regulator should be closed a little, 
then opened again when the engine gets up speed. 








THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


69 


Figure 24 is an illustration of an accessory carbureter, 
such as is commonly used on multiple cylinder and light 
motors, although it is applicable to any type of engine. A 
float, M, controlling a valve, O, takes the place of pump 
and overflow system shown in Figure 23, maintaining a 
constant level of the fuel in the spray nozzle, L. The 
float chamber is placed around the spray nozzle so that 
in traction or marine work, involving various angles and 
positions of the machine, there will be no variation of 
the fuel level in the spray nozzle. The fuel tank is 
usually placed above the carbureter, and connected by 
pipe P to float valve O. The liquid fuel is thus fed 
to the float chamber by gravity. By using a light air 
pressure in the tank it may be placed below the car¬ 
bureter, but this is not often done. The mixer shown 
in Figure 23 is designed for a given engine speed. If 
the engine speed is changed the air and gasoline regula¬ 
tors must also be changed to get the best results. The 
carbureter is generally designed to automatically adjust 
itself to a considerable range of engine speed. Thus in 
Figure 24 the air for starting and slow speed enters at 
I. As the engine speed increases the compensating 
valve, G, opens, more air is admitted and the syphon 
force exerted on the spray nozzle, L, is kept in fairly 
accurate proportions to the requirements of the en¬ 
gine. 

K is a butterfly throttle valve for governing either au¬ 
tomatically or positively the amount of mixture admitted 
to the cylinder, and thus controlling the speed and power. 
Some makers connect the needle valve, A, to the throttle 
lever, R, in such a way that on full open throttle the 
needle valve is given additional opening. Other designs 
like the one illustrated in Figure 24 depend entirely on 


70 


TRACTION FARMING 


the compensating valve for the proportion of liquid 
fuel and air, covering the range of speed and power 
required of the engine. Aside from the differences in 
regulation and control, the essential principles of the 
overflow and float feed systems are practically the same. 

Figure 25 illustrates the principle of the generator 
or mixing valve, a very common method of measuring the 



FIGURE 25. 


liquid fuel for making each charge of gas for a gas en¬ 
gine. The liquid fuel (generally from a tank higher than 
the valve) is supplied to the fuel regulator, D. When 
the intake stroke of the engine draws air through the 
valve a small quantity of gasoline or fuel oil, measured 
by regulator D, is drawn from the drilled opening to the 
valve seat, G. When not in action the valve is held 
to its seat by a light tension spring, thus preventing the 








































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


71 


continued flow of the liquid fuel. This type of mixer 
or measuring device is especially well suited to two 
port two-cycle engines, but has been successfully em¬ 
ployed by large numbers of four-cycle engines as well. 
E is a regulator for the stroke of the valve. F is a 
butterfly valve for controlling the amount of mixture 
admitted and the speed and power of the engine. 

Where insurance regulations or other considerations 
make it advisable to dispense with a considerable gravity 
head of fuel, the pump and overflow systems may be at¬ 
tached as shown in the drawing, Figure 25. A is the 
overflow cup showing the small quantity of head fuel 
supply. B is the pipe from the gasoline pump, and C 
the pipe leading the overflow back to the tank. 

Owing to the pulsations of the valve on some types 
of engines a small amount of vapor is blown back from 
the valve with each stroke. A piece of pipe, 8 or 10 
inches long, to be attached as indicated by H will effect 
quite a saving of gasoline or fuel oil. 

These illustrations show the principles of the various 
devices now in general use for making gas out of gaso¬ 
line, kerosene or other liquid fuel. It should be borne 
in mind that they are chiefly measuring devices, and 
depend on the heat of the incoming air and the heat 
of the cylinder for the vaporization or gasification of 
the liquid measured for each charge. The lighter and 
more volatile the liquid fuel, the better the vaporization. 
This is the reason gasoline is so generally used. The 
complete vaporization of the heavier oils and spirits 
such as kerosene and alcohol requires special attention 
for equally successful results. Even gasoline in cold 
weather needs hot air for the first few charges in 
starting. Some makers of engines provide a generating 


72 


TRACTION FARMING 


cup to hold a small amount of gasoline for heating the 
intake pipe for easy starting in cold weather. 

The higher the speed of the engine the less time there 
is for the thorough gasification of the measured liquid for 
each charge. The heat of the cylinder has less effect. 
The use of multiple cylinders has brought greatly in¬ 
creased practical speeds. These facts, together with the 



FIGURE 26. 
Simple Mixer. 


very desirable purpose of serving each cylinder of an 
engine with an equal quantity of an equally carbureted 
mixture, seems likely to bring further improvements 
in gas generating devices for liquid fuel. The present 
practice is to put the measuring mixer, carbureter or 











THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


73 


generator valve, as the case may be, as close to the 
cylinder intake valves as possible, and depend principally 
on the heat of the cylinders for completing the gasifica¬ 
tion. A complete gasification of the charge before it 
reaches the cylinders would certainly add to the fuel 
economy, smoothness and reliability of action in high 
speed multiple cylinder engines, if it can be accomplished 
in a practical way, and without possible ignition of the 
mixture in the carbureter and intake manifold. 

Types of Carbureters .—There are many different de¬ 
vices for evaporating the fuel oils, and they range from 
the simple mixer shown in Figures 25 and 26 to the 



FIGURE 27. 
Carbureter. 


elaborate carbureter shown in Figures 24 and 27. The 
mixer may be built along lines of very rigid simplicity, 
consisting of but few parts; while on the other hand 
the carbureter consists of an aggregation of parts, both 
moving and stationary, all requiring proper adjustment. 



74 


TRACTION FARMING 


The easiest service for a carbureter is that required 
by a single cylinder stationary engine operating on a 
constant load. The most exacting service is that on 
an automobile where both the loads and speeds are 
variable, and all kinds of roads are traveled. 

Action of Carbureters .—One of the first requirements 
of a carbureter is to deliver the oil automatically, to suit 



The Principle of the Float Feed Valve. 

variable loads and speeds, with the vehicles on various 
grades, and when tilting sidewise; also, the carbureter 
must not be affected by the vibration of the vehicle. The 




































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


75 


general method by which the oil is kept at a constant 
level in the carbureter is by the use of a float-feed 
valve. The principle of this valve is shown in Figure 
28. The float valve A is in a separate chamber from 
the body of the carbureter. The float is made of sheet 
copper and is lifted by the oil in the reservoir so as to 
shut off the supply by the needle valve F. The height of 
the oil is kept at a level about from one-eighth to three- 
sixteenths of an inch below the spray nozzle H. A 
modem carubreter using the float feed is shown in Fig¬ 
ure 27. A sectional view of this carbureter is shown in 
Figure 29. In this make the needle valve is below the 



FIGURE 29. 

In This Carbureter the Needle Valve is Below the Float 

and is Closed by a Spring - . 


float A, and the gasoline connection is at N with a 
strainer T. Where the needle valve is below the float, 
the valve must be closed by its own weight or by a 
spring as in Figure 29. The weight of the float operates 

















76 


TRACTION FARMING 


on a pair of levers when it settles down, lifting the valve 
and admitting more oil. This construction is shown in 
Figure 30. The weight W presses the valve to its seat 
when the float A is clear of the levers H. When the oil 
level lowers, the weight of the float resting on the outer 
ends of the levers lifts the valve. 

In addition to the float feed, the carbureter shown in 
Figures 27 and 29 has special features to meet the re¬ 
quirements of variable speeds and loads. The spray 



FIGURE 30. 

The Needle Valve in This Case is Weighted and is Raised 
by the Float Acting Through Levers “H.” 


nozzle K is central and stands vertically in the air tube 
where the oil is atomized. The air supply enters through 
the openings around the horizontal tube M. The size of 
these openings is regulated by a concentric slide P, and 
























THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


77 


a butterfly valve O is used in a hot air connection to this 
tube. There is also a second spray nozzle S, and a sec¬ 
ond air intake at Y. A throttle valve is located in the 
vapor delivery tube Z. 

The use of a second spray nozzle and air inlet forms 
a special improvement on carbureters for high speed 
service. It is thought impossible to make a carbureter 
with a single air inlet that will supply vapor for all 
speeds of the engine. Hence, the method of construc¬ 
tion is to make and adjust the lower inlet for low engine 



FIGURE 31. 

Carbureter with Hot Air Connection. 


speeds, as at M, Figure 29, and the second inlet for 
high speeds. The way in which these two aii inlets 
work together and automatically is interesting. In the 
first place, it must be understood that a gas engine re¬ 
quires a richer mixture for low speeds, as at starting, 

















78 


TRACTION FARMING 


than for high speeds. By locating the second air inlet 
above the spray nozzle, the vapor is made lean. This 
is desirable because a weak mixture burns faster than a 
rich one. At low speeds and when under heavy loads, 






Top. FIGURE 32. 

A Carbureter with Adjustments Designed to Take Care of 
Any Speed or Any Atmospheric Condition. 

Bottom, FIGURE 33. 

Sectional View of Figure 32, Showing Interior Construction. 







THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


79 


a rich mixture is desirable, because it is slow burning 
and keeps up a higher working pressure during the 
stroke. 

Adjustments of the various springs, levers and valves 
are made so that the engine gets its entire supply of oil 
vapor from the central nozzle K and the air from the 
lower tube up to about 600 r.p.m. A further increase 
of suction from a higher speed will open the auxiliary 
air valve Y. As this valve is connected to the upper 
spray nozzle S by the lever E, the second spray nozzle 
begins to operate with the extra air supply. A water 
jacket Q surrounds the vapor chamber. Hot water from 



Detailed View of the Three Air Inlets of Figure 32. 


the engine jacket is piped to the carbureter, the connec¬ 
tions L and G being for this purpose. There-is a hot 
air connection at O so as to insure heated air for vapor¬ 
izing the oil. The air is heated by arranging a sleeve 
N around the exhaust manifold of the engine, as shown 



























































80 


TRACTION FARMING 


in Figure 31. The sleeve is connected by an armored 
tube M to the carbureter, and conducts the air to the 
vaporizer chamber. 

Another type of float feed carbureter is shown in 
Figures 32 and 33. In this example the copper float 



FIGURE 35. 

The Throttle Control of Figure 32. 


A, Figure 33, operates a weighted lever—valve V— 
by resting on a lever L. The lifting of the float allows 
the weight to seat the valve V and shut off the oil. The 
characteristic features of this carbureter are the three 























THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


81 


air inlets, the mechanically operated air valve and spray 
nozzle, together with a fixed open air nozzle and an 
automatic one. This carbureter also has three adjust¬ 
ments. At first sight one is bewildered by this great 
array of mechanical combinations, but the method of 
operation is single. This example shows, however, the 
great ingenuity displayed by inventors to produce a 
perfect mixture of gasoline vapor and air at all engine 



Connections for Operating the Spray Nozzle from the Dash. 

speeds and under all conditions of atmospheric humidity. 

The lower air-intake has a butterfly valve H linked to 
the throttle valve T of similar design (see Figures 34, 
35 and 36 for use of reference letters). Hence, when the 
throttle is opened, the air valve H also opens. The 





















82 


TRACTION FARMING 


automatic air intake has a conical valve J, which is held 
to its seat by a spring. The suction of the engine at 
high speed causes this valve J to admit additional air. 
The tension of the spring is regulated by the screw 
sleeve X that is turned by hand. The spray nozzle is at 
N and it is closed by the needle valve P having a long 
vertical stem S. There is a venturi air tube C through 
the side of the carbureter opposite the spray nozzle. This 
opening is not shown in Figures 32 and 33, but will 
be seen in the diagram Figure 34. The spray valve is 
kept closed normally by a spring R pressing against the 
upper end. By a system of levers and cams, this spray 
valve is connected to the throttle valve stem and it is 
moved in conjunction with it. There is also a second 
system of levers by which the spray valve can be operated 
independently of the throttle connection by the wire Y, 
Figures 32 and 3G. In auto service this wire extends 
to a button on the dash. 

Details of the working parts of this carbureter are 
illustrated diagrammatically in Figures 34, 35 and 36. 
The throttle lever L has a cam G on the lower end. 
As the throttle opens, the cam G forces the lever F, 
Figure 35, downwards and turns the supporting shaft 
K to the right. This shaft carries a projection D (also 
shown in Figures 33, 34, 35 and 36) which engages a 
slot cut in the side of the spray valve stem S. Hence, 
the turning of the shaft K to the right lifts the spray 
valve. On the shaft K is another lever O, Figure 36, 
having a vertical shaft turning through it. At the top 
of this horizontal shaft is a lever U to which the 
operating wire Y is attached, and at the lower end is a 
cam E. The pulling of the wire, therefore, turns the 
cam E against the end of the adjusting screw P, forcing 


the carbureter or mixer 


83 


the lever O to the left and turning the shaft K to the 
right as before, and opening the spray valve S. The 
purpose of the second motion of the spray valve is to 
make it possible to admit more gasoline without change of 
throttle. 

Non-Adjustable Carbureter .—It will have been no¬ 
ticed in the foregoing descriptions of carbureters that 
each of the examples has various adjustments made by 



FIGURE 37. 

A Modern Carbureter Having- no Spring or Lever Adjustments. 


levers, screws, springs, valves, etc. This would indicate 
that the service to which a carbureter is subjected is 
varied, and that the builders of them are endeavoring to 
accommodate all the demands of the trade. It is inter¬ 
esting to note, however, that the solution of the problem 
of the adjustments has been attempted by building a 





84 


TRACTION FARMING 


carbureter having no adjustments. One form of this 
type is shown in Figures 37, 38 and 39. 

It will be seen from the sectional view, Figure 38, 
that this particular make has a float feed, but that the 
levers operating the needle valve B are above the float, 
and they close the valve from the flotation effect of the 
oil on the float. The spray nozzle C delivers the oil 



FIGURE 38. 

Sectional View of Figures 37 and 39. 


central in the air tube D where its area is contracted. 
The air for evaporation flows upward through a gauze 
screen in the large opening E at the bottom. The con¬ 
traction of area at the bottom middle of the air tube is 
peculiar, but there is a scientific reason for its use. A 
tube formed in this way, shown enlarged in Figure 40, 
























































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


85 


is called a venturi tube from the name of its Italian 
inventor. The amount of air or any gas flowing through 
a short tube can be greatly increased or the amount 
modified by the form of the tube. Strange to say, the 
greatest flow is not obtained by using a straight tube, 
as at A, Figure 40. On the contrary, more air will be 
delivered by the contracted tube shown at B, where the 



FIGURE 39. 

The Auxiliary Air Valve Consists of a Row of Bronze 
Balls of Different Weights. 


outlet from the reservoir tapers thirty degrees and the 
delivery end of the tube has a seven-degree taper. This 
greatly increased flow of air around the spray nozzle 
aids in the evaporation of the oil, and the vapor is de- 




86 


TRACTION FARMING 


livered in an expanding volume in the mixing chamber 
where the additional air is admitted. 

The auxiliary air valve on this carbureter is distinc¬ 
tive. It consists of a row of bronze balls G, Figures 38 
and 39, set in a cage J, each ball covering an air inlet. 
The balls are graded in weight, so that as the suction 
of the engine becomes greater from the increased speed, 
the lightest ball will be lifted from its seat first and ad- 


A 



FIGURE 40. 

“The Amount of Air or Gas Flowing Through a Short 
Tube can be Greatly Increased or the Amount 
Modified by the Form of the Tube.’* 

mit more air to the mixing chamber F. Following the 
lifting of the lightest ball, the others are lifted in the 
order of their weights with the further increase of suc¬ 
tion until the entire auxiliary air supply becomes avail¬ 
able at the maximum speed of the engine. The car¬ 
bureter size is selected for the power of the engine and 
its service, and its operation is entirely automatic aside 
















THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 87 

from the handling of the throttle valve L. The throttle 
is operated by means of a small lever mounted on the 
steering wheel of the auto. A system of rods and levers 
connects the hand lever to the throttle, the rod M and 
the lever N, Figure 37 being a part of this system. Two 
adjustable screw stops O, Figure 37, are set so as to 
strike the nut P and limit the throw of the throttle valve. 
The hot water jacket H around the vaporizing chamber 
is connected to the engine jacket. The extra heat is 
quite, necessary, especially in the winter season and for 
using the heavier grades of gasoline now on the market. 

Cotton Double-Tube Carbureter .—It is well known 
that fifty per cent of the troubles causing “shut downs” 
in gas engines is due to faulty ignition; not to that 
part which furnishes the electric current supply, but to 
that part on the engine which engages the compressed 
charge. 

In large gas engines having a plurality of cylinders a 
defective igniter is replaced by cutting out the cylinder, 
extracting the igniter and inserting a new one, while the 
engine is running. Such a method is very amateurish 
and dangerous as the gas continues to flow in and out of 
the igniter canal with intense force, and the power of the 
engine is very much lowered. 

Figure 40A illustrates an igniter which it is claimed 
eliminates most of the trouble with this, the most vital 
point in the machine. The device consists of a casing, 
preferably water-jacketed, containing a pair of ignition 
pockets in which are located the electrodes. A central 
hand-controlled valve, having a passage leading to the 
combustion chamber, opens or closes communication be¬ 
tween the combustion chamber to either of the ignition 
pockets. The electric circuit is connected to a binding 



FIGURE 40A. 
Cotton Carbureter. 


























































































































































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


89 


post located on and insulated from the valve-handle and 
closes the circuit with the insulated electrode located in 
the pocket which has been set in communication with the 
combustion chamber. 

The tubes extending from the pockets shown in Figure 
40A serve to receive any incombustible gas that may 
have been retained in the pockets after exhaust. 

It will readily be understood that a defective plug 
can be cut out and a new one set in operation almost in¬ 
stantaneously while the engine is running and the de¬ 
fective one taken out and repaired. 

In this device ignition first takes place in a pocket 
which causes an intense blast of flames to pass through 
the combustion chamber resulting in the bulk of the gases 
being broken up very quickly and a resulting rapid raise 
of the combustion line and consequently higher M. E. P. 
Jump spark, magnetic arc, or make-and-break systems 
may be used therewith. 

Adjustment of the Carbureter .—On some carbureters 
there is no gasoline adjustment and one or two for the 
air; on others there is one or more for the gasoline and 
possibly two for the air. The first step in the adjust¬ 
ment is to see that the gasoline is properly fed and the 
action of the float and its valve are corrected, after which 
the needle points may be opened (if of the adjustable 
needle point type) to some point that might suggest it¬ 
self as being near enough to get the engine started. If 
the carbureter is of the fixed spray nozzle type the air 
valves should be adjusted to some point that might sug¬ 
gest itself for starting. To overcome this defective ad¬ 
justment it is a good plan to prime the engine through 
its priming cup, or at the carbureter by means of the 
primer, found on most carbureters. It will generally be 


90 


TRACTION FARMING 


found that the engine will start readily, after which one 
can in a very short time adjust the carbureter to a posi¬ 
tion that the engine will continue running. 

Adjusting the engine for slow running without load 
should be done by closing the throttle valve and retard¬ 
ing the spark which is the slow operating position for 
all engines. The carbureter now can be very easily ad¬ 
justed to the best efficiency for this throttled condition 
by increasing or decreasing the fuel supply by the various 
methods found in different carbureters. Keep changing 
the adjustment of the fuel until the position is found 
where the engine seemingly has the best efficiency, and 
the air valve or valves are free from action, or in other 
words all the air passing into the carbureter should pass 
through the fixed air inlet. By so doing, the air valve 
adjustments are reserved for higher speed running. This 
condition gives the carbureter a greater range in its ac¬ 
tion, thus adding to the flexibility and power of the en¬ 
gine. 

Next test the engine for higher speed without load 
to ascertain if the carbureter is adjusted for speed. 
Leaving the spark in its retarded position open 
the throttle and note the action of the engine. If the 
engine seems to choke or fill with gas it is an indication 
that the gas is too rich and should be rectified by ad¬ 
mitting more air through the air valve. This adjust¬ 
ment is accomplished by reducing the spring tension on 
the air valve thus giving it a freer action which increases 
the area of the opening, allowing more air to enter. 

In case of a carbureter with a mechanically operated 
needle point, which operates in unison with the throttle, 
this choking condition can be overcome by reducing its 
action, thus cutting off the supply of gasoline when the 


THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


91 


throttle is opened. The other extreme when opening 
the throttle should be too lean a mixture or the lack of 
gasoline. This condition would indicate itself by back¬ 
firing or snapping at the mouth of the carbureter. Ad¬ 
justments to overcome this condition are obtained by 
simply reversing the aforesaid methods of adjustments 
for too rich a mixture. If the back-firing is not serious 
it is possible to overcome it by advancing the spark and 
again opening the throttle, which shows that the car¬ 
bureter is near its correct adjustment. 

The best guidance while adjusting carbureters is to 
keep them adjusted as close to a back-firing condition as 
possible. 

If after the adjustments are all made, and an occasional 
back-fire is present at all speeds, it indicates that the 
carbureter is properly adjusted throughout its range, and 
the back-firing condition can be overcome by the ad¬ 
dition of a trifle more gasoline, which will affect the 
mixture at any position of the throttle. 

In a carbureter with no needle valve or gasoline ad¬ 
justment there is always a slow speed air adjustment 
and one or more adjustments for high speeds. In this 
case see that no air can enter through the high speed 
inlet on low speed, then adjust this low speed until the 
motor runs smoothly and evenly. When the low speed 
adjustment is correct open the throttle a little and ad¬ 
just the second air intake until the engine runs properly; 
then the third, if there is one. The air should be ad¬ 
justed so that the engine will neither choke nor back-fire 
when the throttle is opened suddenly. 

In the case of a carbureter having two or more needle 
valves, the method of procedure for adjusting is prac¬ 
tically the same as that just described. All that is nec- 


92 


TRACTION FARMING 


sssary to do is to adjust the slow speed needle valve and 
the slow speed air. When the engine works all right at 
slow speed the throttle should be opened a little wider, 
when the second needle valve and the second air intake 
may be adjusted. 


CHAPTER XI. 


MODERN IGNITION. 

Of all the ills to which the gas engine falls heir, it is 
safe to say that more of them can be laid to ignition 
trouble than any other cause. This trouble is not all 
from poor ignition outfits, as a large percentage of it 
can be laid to the incompetency of the engine operator. 

The field for the use of gasoline engines has developed 
so widely that the engines are being handled now, in a 
great many instances, by men whose interests lie in other 
directions and who have not the time and opportunity 
to make a special study of the engine and its accessories. 
Engines are so constructed throughout that the only nec¬ 
essary attention is an occasional oiling, and some atten¬ 
tion to the ignition system. The ignition system is now 
the only part of the equipment that is sure to need some 
attention at times. This is due to the fact that batteries 
are used as a source of current and since the battery en¬ 
ergy finally becomes exhausted, renewals have to be 
made. 

When the battery becomes weak, it is customary to 
adjust the spark coil to compensate for the lower voltage 
and this means that when a new battery is installed, un¬ 
less the adjustment is lightened again, the coil is drawing 
too much current. This runs the battery down more rap¬ 
idly than is necessary and causes burning of the contact 
points on the coil. 


93 


94 


TRACTION FARMING 


Auburn Spark Plug .—The Auburn ignition spark plug 
No. 1, see Figure 41, is a mica plug only and made in 



FIGURE 41. 


all sizes, while Auburn ignition spark plug No. 2, Figure 
42, is made in porcelain or mica. These plugs represent 
the highest art of spark plug manufacture and are guar¬ 
anteed in every particular. 

An illustration, Figure 43, is also shown of the Au¬ 
burn ignition timer which is made for one, two, three or 
four-cylinder engines. The contact and roller of this 
timer are made of high grade, imported non-magnetic 
steel. It has self-lubricating bearings and is guaranteed 
not to heat. - . 



? PlUO HO-2 Jj 
AUBURN.N.V 


,^-AUBu^ 

ft: No. 2 











MODERN IGNITION 


95 


Ignition Mechanism .—A form of ignition mechanism 
used in connection with the primary make and break sys¬ 
tem of electrical ignition is illustrated in Figure 44. 
Upon the operating rod being moved to the left, the pawl, 
carried by the upper arm of the bell-crank lever, forces 



FIGURE 43. 

downward the small trigger carried upon the outer end 
of the movable electrode and in this manner passes by it. 
Upon the return stroke of the operating rod the upper 
end of the pawl engages with the trigger, bringing the 
contact-points of the movable and fixed electrode together 
for a short period of time. A further movement of the 
operating rod in the same direction causes the trigger to 
be released from contact with the pawl. This action 
causes the contact-points of the electrodes to suddenly 




96 


TRACTION FARMING 


fly apart and a spark or arc is produced between them. 

Reason for Advancing Point of Ignition .—It may be 
well to explain, without entering into theoretical details, 
that when an engine is running at normal speed the igni¬ 
tion mechanism is so set that ignition takes place slightly 



FIGURE 44. 

Ignition Mechanism for Use in Connection with a Primary 

Make and Break Spark. 

before the piston reaches the end of its compression 
stroke. 

If the charge is fired at or after the end of the com¬ 
pression stroke, the average pressure on the piston, and 
consequently the power, is decreased in proportion. 
Therefore to ensure perfect combustion with a maximum 
pressure at the commencement of the explosion stroke, 
the point of ignition must he earlier, and advance as 
the speed increases. 

Spark Coils and Magnetos .—The Pfanstiehl coil, 
shown in Figure 45, is so constructed as to eliminate 
any chance of battery or coil trouble in the hands of in¬ 
experienced users. This feature is principally due to the 
vibrator, the tension of which is controlled by a sep- 












MODERN IGNITION 


97 


arate coil spring, which has a limited movement so that 
the tension cannot exceed an amount necessary to produce 
a good spark for a high compression engine. It is im¬ 
possible to make these coils draw more than three-fourths 
of an ampere on a dead short circuit, with the vibrator 
working; and on the timer of an ordinary engine, they 
will draw from 0.1 to 0.25 of an ampere. This means 
that the maximum service will always be obtained from 
the dry cells and that the points will not burn excessively. 



FIGURE 45. 


The contact points are composed of the highest qual¬ 
ity of platinum iridium alloy that it is practicable to work 
and this high quality, combined with the fact that the 
points are never changed in their relation to each other 
by adjustment, insures a minimum of trouble from this 
cause. The Pfanstiehl coils are further characterized by 
the patented method of winding, by which the secondary 
is made up of pancake sections, and these sections are 
assembled over the primary and core. This method of 



98 


TRACTION FARMING 


winding is absolutely necessary in large coils for X-Ray 
and wireless work, as it insures perfect insulation and 
greatly increases the efficiency of the coil. It has not 
been used in ignition coils until within recent years on 
account of the expense involved, but due to the Pfan- 
stiehl special method of construction, this winding can 
be used without adding materially to the cost of the coil. 


FIGURE 46. 


Figure 46 shows the Pfanstiehl Junior magneto for 
jump spark engines, in which the same idea of trouble 
proof construction has been carried out. This magneto 
may be either friction, belt or gear driven and should be 
run from three to five times engine speed. There are no 
moving wires or contacts of any kind, no brushes and 
in fact, the only revolving part is a block of laminated 






MODERN IGNITION 


99 


magnetic iron, perfectly balanced, so that the magneto 
will run at practically any speed without injury. The 
coil is self-contained and furnished with the magneto. 
This insures the perfect working of the entire sytem 
and greatly simplifies the wiring. As may be seen from 
the illustration, the coil is placed under the arch of the 
magnets and securely fastened and only three wires are 
used in the whole wiring system, one to the spark plug, 
one to the ground and one to the timer. This magneto 
will start any engine that can be turned over by hand 
and the use of batteries is entirely eliminated. No 
changes in the engine are necessary as it is used in con¬ 
nection with the timer already on the engine. The mag¬ 
neto works just as well in cold or rainy weather as it 
does in warm weather and thereby insures starting under 
all conditions. 

The bearings are very large and the oiling arrange¬ 
ment is positive and will operate under all conditions. As 
an extra precaution, terminals are placed on the coil so 
that batteries may be used with it in case of emergencies, 
or for starting very large engines that cannot be turned 
over by hand. The vibrator on the coil of this magneto 
is covered by a metal cap, which can be removed in case 
an adjustment is necessary. This adjustment will only 
be necessary, however, on an engine where the condi¬ 
tions are very unusual and when once made is perma¬ 
nent. 

Timing the Magneto .—The accurate timing of a mag¬ 
neto is an important factor in the efficient operation of 
gas engines, and must be studied with considerable care. 

No cut and dried rule can be established for timing, 
inasmuch as the ignition point varies according to peculi¬ 
arities and characteristics of the individual engine. 



> > > 


100 


TRACTION FARMING 


It has been stated that the correct point of ignition is 
of the engine stroke; thus, for an engine of 5-in. 
stroke, the ignition advance should be $4 in. before top 
dead center. 

It is quite true that some engines of 5-in. stroke re¬ 
quire an advance of $4 in., but it is equally true that 
with other 5-in. stroke engines an advance of ^4 in. 
would be quite incorrect. 

If an engine is so constructed that the combustion 
space is compact, the required advance would be con¬ 
siderably less than the proper advance for an engine in 
which the combustion space is considerably extended. 

The normal speed of the engine is one of the great 
factors in establishing the ignition point, for it goes 
without saying that a far greater advance is required for 
an engine running at 1,200 r.p.m. than for an engine 
running at GOO. 

Another factor that must be considered is the stroke 
of the engine, for the longer the stroke the greater must 
be the advance, other conditions being equal. Thus, an 
engine of 5-in. bore and 7-in. stroke will require a greater 
ignition advance than an engine of 5-in. bore and only 
5-in. stroke. 

Another consideration will be the location of the spark 
plug. If this is located in the center of the combustion 
space, and with its point projecting into the mixture, a 
small advance will be required, whereas if the plug is 
located on one side of the combustion space and is pos¬ 
sibly pocketed, the advance required will be far greater. 

The exact advance for maximum efficiency can only 
be determined by experiment. 

In timing a magneto of the usual rotating armature 
type, fair all-around results may be obtained by so set- 


MODERN IGNITION 


101 


ting it that in the full retard position it gives its spark 
at the instant when the piston is at top dead center. 
Whether or not the advance position will be found cor¬ 
rect can only be determined by trial, and if it is found 
not to be so the relation of the armature to the crank¬ 
shaft can be altered in accordance with carefully noted 
tests until the results are satisfactory. 

Another statement that is made is that if a user of an 
engine desires to have it throttled down to a very low 
speed, the spark plug points should be opened up until 
they are fully 1/16 in. apart. 

This statement is exactly contrary to the actual con¬ 
ditions. When a magneto runs at slow speed, as will 
be the case when the engine is throttled down, it does 
not produce a current of as high a voltage as will be 
the case when it operates at increased speed, and in 
consequence the current will not be able to jump across 
as wide a spark gap. Thus if it is desired to throttle an 
engine down low, the spark plug gap must be much 
smaller than is required for higher speeds. For high 
tension magneto ignition 1/50 in. spark gap will give 
correct results for all normal operating speeds. Engine 
characteristics have some influence on the size of the 
spark gap, but in no case should this gap be greater 
than 1/32 in. 

Delco Ignition System .—The Dayton Engineering Lab¬ 
oratories Company, of Dayton, Ohio, have placed on the 
market a novel battery ignition system. In order to sim¬ 
plify the wiring, the different parts are combined into a 
compact unit, of the same outward appearance as a coil 
box, with a throw-over switch on the outside of the box. 
This arrangement, known as Model 1, is designed to be 
secured to the dash in place of the regular coil. 


102 


TRACTION FARMING 


The Delco System No. 2 differs from No. 1 in that it 
is built in three units, a switch mounted on the dash, a 
coil box containing a non-vibrating coil for each engine 
cylinder, mounted on the cylinders, and a circuit breaker 
(or controlling relay), which is mounted on the motor 
side of the dash. 

A sectional view of the circuit breaker and high ten¬ 
sion distributor is shown in Figure 47. The distributor 
proper is made of hard rubber with a metal housing in 
which are mounted also the primary connection, the dis¬ 
tributor shaft and the advance lever. The housing is 
finished and flanged on the bottom so as to be readily 
fitted to any motor. The distributor shaft is mounted 
upon two large size ball bearings, the centers of which 
are ins. apart. For cleaning or adjusting, the dis¬ 
tributor head and disc may be easily removed, the head 
being held in place by spring clips. 

The primary contact consists of an arm A, which is 
moved outwardly against the action of the coil spring B 
by a four-lobed cam C. The contact arm is made up 
of three parts, viz., a hub upon which is mounted the 
bent arm D, made of steel and hardened, and the con¬ 
tact spring E. This spring is set with an initial tension 
which holds its outer end against the stop F of the steel 
arm. The contact spring carries a platinum contact 
which makes connection with a similar point at G on the 
contact screw H. The relation of the two points is such 
that they come together when the arm has moved about 
one-half of its full throw, the tension in the contact 
spring insuring a positive pressure at the contact points. 

The movement of the arm is limited by a stop I to¬ 
ward which the arm is normally drawn by the coil spring 
B. This spring is very light and is fastened to the arm 


MODERN IGNITION 


103 


close to its pivot. The short movement of the spring 
allows very high speeds on account of the absence of 




FIGURE 47. 


inertia. The four-lobed cam is so formed as to impart 
the full movement to the arm in a small fraction of one 
revolution, thus avoiding any serious lag in moving 
parts, or variation due to adjustment. 

In the high tension distributor, the current from the 
coil in introduced at the central terminal J, which pro- 











































































104 


TRACTION FARMING 


jects into the chamber as shown at K. Upon the disc 
L is mounted a steel brush M, which is connected to the 
center terminal by a bar N. In operation the brush, 
being normally held against the head by a light spring, 
makes contact with the outer terminals successively and 
at the instant the contacts are closed in the primary cir¬ 
cuit. It is claimed that there is little arcing in the dis¬ 
tributor, and the pressure upon the terminals is very 
light, so that the wear on the brush is reduced to the 
minimum. The flange on the disc projecting into the 
grove in the distributor head effectively insulates the 
terminals from the housing and other points to which 
the spark might jump. 

The spark control is effected by means of a spiral slot 
in the distributor sleeve, upon which the four-lobed cam 
is rigidly mounted. A bronze ring, which is slidably 
mounted upon the sleeve, carries a pin which passes 
through the spiral slots. A forked yoke, carrying two 
pins which co-act with the groove in the ring is rigidly 
mounted upon a shaft, to which the timer lever is con¬ 
nected. The rocking of the yoke by means of the timer 
lever causes the ring to slide along the sleeves, the spiral 
slots in the sleeve causing it to rotate, thus changing the 
relation between the four-lobed cam and the engine shaft 
as desired. 

Battery Ignition—Dry Batteries .—A dry cell battery 
is a chemical and mechanical combination, and a power 
unit within itself, and consequently has certain limits to 
its capacity to generate current. Chemicals are always a 
rather delicate proposition to handle, and to give best 
service it is unnecessary to say that dry cells should first 
be properly constructed, with proper proportion of chem¬ 
ical ingredients used. 


MODERN IGNITION 


105 


The outer cup is made of zinc, and acts as the positive 
electrode. Over it is slipped a strawboard tube. The 
object is to prevent the zinc of two cells from touching 
each other so as to establish a wrong connection. The 
negative electrode is a plate of carbon. This is placed 
in the center of the zinc, and is so supported as not to 
touch it in any place. Carbon and zinc both carry bind¬ 
ing posts. The filling varies. The following is used in 
the Burnley cell: 

A wooden plunger or template, somewhat larger than 
the carbon, is inserted, and the following mixture intro¬ 
duced : Ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, 1 part of 
each, plaster of Paris, 3 parts, flour 0.87 parts, water 2 
parts. After this has set a little the wooden template is 
withdrawn, the carbon is inserted in the cavity left by 
its withdrawal, and the space left unfilled is filled with 
the following mixture: Ammonium chloride, zinc chlor¬ 
ide, manganese binoxide, granulated carbon, flour, 1 part 
of each, plaster 3 parts, water 2 parts. The electromo¬ 
tive force of this cell is 1.4 volts, its resistance 0.3 ohm. 

The Gassner dry cell has as negative element a cyl¬ 
inder made of a mixture of carbon and manganese di¬ 
oxide. The filling composition is as follows: Zinc oxide, 
ammonium chloride, and zinc chloride, 1 part each, plas¬ 
ter of Paris 3 parts, water 2 parts. 

For the Meserole dry battery, there are mixed the 
following: Graphite, slacked lime, arsenious acid, and 
glucose or dextrine, 1 part each, carbon and manganese 
binoxide, 3 parts each. The mixture is finely pulverized 
and rubbed up in a saturated solution of ammonium 
chloride and sodium chloride (common salt) with one- 
tenth its volume of a solution of mercury chloride and 
an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. These constitu- 


106 


TRACTION FARMING 


ents are intimately mixed and poured into the zinc cup. 

Dry batteries are sealed with pitch. A hole is some¬ 
times left for the escape of gas. 

Placing Cells .—Great care should be exercised when 
placing dry cells into the battery box. A good method 
is to proceed as follows: Take each cell and roll it up, 
cardboard and all, in a long strip of heavy manila wrap¬ 
ping paper, so that it is covered with about half a dozen 
thicknesses. The paper can be held in place by a few 
wrappings of insulating tape. Cut the paper about an 
inch or so longer at either end than the full length of 
the cell, so that the ends of the paper wrapper can be 
turned in. Before doing the latter, however, the cells 
should be connected and each terminal wrapped with a 
few layers of insulating tape. The connecting wires 
should be at least No. 14 gauge, rubber covered, and 
when they are subject to excessive jarring, flexible wire 
with lock nuts on the cells should be used. Wiring 
should be installed with knobs and cleats, such as are 
used in electric light installation, and the wires should 
not come in contact with any surface except its supports. 

The various methods of connecting dry cells for gas 
engine ignition are explained under the heading “Bat¬ 
tery Output,” and plainly illustrated by Figures 50 to 53. 

Arrangement of Cells .—The usual way to arrange a 
number of cells to form a battery for ignition purposes, 
is what is called a series, that is, the zinc from one cell 
is connected to the carbon of the next one and so on. 
One cell is arranged directly behind the other in this ar¬ 
rangement and the current is compelled to pass through 
all of the cells. 

Another method of arranging cells in a battery is to 
connect all of the zincs together and all of the carbons 


MODERN IGNITION 


107 


together. This amounts to the same thing as making 
one large cell having a zinc as large as the sum of all 
the zincs and a carbon plate whose area is equal to the 
sum of all the carbons. This method of connecting is 
called connecting in parallel. 

When not in use, and also if possible when in use, dry 
cells should be kept in a cool dry place, away from ex¬ 
cessive dust and dirt, and during the term of hot sum¬ 
mer months care should be taken that the sun does not 
shine directly on them, for the reason that, owing to the 
peculiarity of the chemicals, they become exceedingly ac¬ 
tive at high temperature, and under such conditions oc¬ 
casionally moisture will appear around the tops, thus 
short-circuiting the whole set. Water, oil drippings and 
wet cases should be carefully avoided. 

Most, if not all, of the dissatisfaction with dry batter¬ 
ies for ignition work has arisen not because of any in¬ 
herent defect in the battery, but because of the unfor¬ 
tunate selection of a battery entirely inadequate for the 
duty forced upon it. If we insert a low reading ampere 
meter in the battery circuit of a gas engine while in 
operation, a current flow of .3-.5 ampere will be indi¬ 
cated. This does not represent the actual demand made 
on the battery; this current drain is actually a series 
of discharges from the battery, averaging about 4 am¬ 
peres each. Therefore, when a battery reaches a point 
when it will no longer force this amount of current 
(about 4 amperes) through the coil it should be replaced 
by a new one. 

Storage Batteries .—The ordinary 6-volt, 60 ampere- 
hour storage battery is composed of three individual cells, 
the elements of which are connected up in series. Each 
cell usually consists of a hard-rubber jar, containing one 


108 


TRACTION FARMING 


negative element and two positive elements, which are 
formed of lead, and honey-combed, or cast in a “grid" 
form, and the openings filled with the active material, 
consisting of a paste, formed of a mixture of oxide of 
lead (red-lead) for the negative elements and litherage 
(yellow-lead) for the positive elements mixed with di¬ 
lute sulphuric acid. The elements are separated and 
prevented from touching each other, within the cell, by 
a perforated sheet of hard-rubber, or other means, al¬ 
lowing of a free circulation of the electrolyte. 

The electrolyte is made up of a ten per cent solution 
of sulphuric acid (chemically pure) and distilled water, 
or clean filtered rain water. The acid should be poured 
in a fine stream into the water, when making up the solu¬ 
tion, and slowly stirred with a glass rod or clean wood 
stick, until the density or specific gravity has reached 
1.21 or 1.215. The solution heats rapidly upon adding 
the acid, and hydrometer reading should not be taken 
till the solution cools. Great care should be exercised in 
adding the acid to the water to prevent slopping—never 
pour the water into the acid—and never place the solu¬ 
tion in the cells while hot. 

The density of the electrolyte in a fully charged cell 
should never be over 1.28 to 1.3, and when reduction 
of the density is necessary, the water should be added a 
little at a time, and the solution thoroughly agitated so 
as to get a uniform density throughout the solution. Al¬ 
ways correct the density after the battery has been fully 
charged, using a standard storage battery hydrometer for 
these tests. For the portable types of storage batteries, 
a small twenty-five cent syringe with rubber bulb and 
hard-rubber nozzle is a cheap and handy instrument with 
which to draw the solution out of the small vent, or filler 


MODERN IGNITION 


109 


openings, and also to force water into and agitate the 
solution. 

Even if standard electrolyte is furnished with the bat¬ 
tery, it becomes necessary in time to reduce or build up 
the density, so as to keep it in the most efficient condi¬ 
tion. A new storage battery, especially of the portable 
type, will stand a great deal of abuse without showing 
any immediate apparent loss of efficiency, but abuse, with 
this as with anything else, eventually means ruin. 

Usually the details of testing the solution, or electro¬ 
lyte, as it is termed, is left to the person who does the 
recharging and who, frequently, is inexperienced and 
incompetent to intelligently perform the task. If the 
battery were taken to a recharging station where a spe¬ 
cialty of this work is made, less trouble would be expe¬ 
rienced. However, more frequently, the owner does not 
have access to such facilities, especially in the rural dis¬ 
tricts, and must depend upon the local, or nearby elec¬ 
tric lighting plant for this service. 

As some forms of storage battery ignition systems are 
equipped with a low voltage direct current dynamo or 
magneto, which is connected to the battery so as to keep 
it in a fully charged condition, the owner does not have 
to contend with the incompetency or carelessness of out¬ 
siders; however, instances are encountered in cases of 
this kind where the electrolyte had been permitted to 
evaporate almost entirely, thus rendering the battery 
useless. Whatever form or type of storage battery is 
used, the plates, or elements should always be kept im¬ 
mersed in the solution, preventing exposure of the plates 
to the air, for when the plates are exposed they not only 
sulphate rapidly, but the decreased area of plate surface 
exposed to the chemical action of the solution, reduces 


110 


TRACTION FARMING 


the capacity of the battery, while a sulphated condition 
has a similar effect. 

Charging Storage Batteries. —Instructions, relative to 
charging and care, are invariably furnished the purchaser 
of a storage battery and should be closely followed by 
the user. 

When the battery has been discharged, the density de¬ 
creases, owing to the absorption of the sulphuric acid by 
the plates or elements, and when fully charged, or being 
charged, the density increases, because of the reversal of 
this operation—that is, the acid is thrown back into the 
solution, and this variation is directly proportional to 
the ampere-hour charge or discharge, between certain 
limits. 

The charging rate, or the number of amperes passed 
through a cell in the process of charging, should never 
exceed that rate stated in the instructions, and usually 
stamped on the name-plate. This rate ordinarily is from 
5 to 6 amperes for a GO amp.hr. battery, and 3 to 4 am¬ 
peres for a 40 amp.hr. battery. Hence it would require 
12 hours to fully charge a GO amp.hr. cell at a 5 ampere 
rate, or 10 hours at a G ampere rate and so on. If this 
rate is exceeded slightly, say 1 or 2 amperes, it should 
be but for a short period, as continued overcharging is 
injurious as well as wasteful. 

An exhausted cell, charged at a normal rate for five 
minutes, will show a normal voltage, but it will be inca¬ 
pable of yielding a normal current, and the current is 
the vital agent. The voltage of a healthy storage cell 
should be from 2.02 to 2.10 volts when fully charged, 
and from 1.98 to 2.00 volts when discharged to a safe 
limit. Excessive discharging will result in the same 
trouble as excessive charging, and eventually ruin the 
battery. 


MODERN IGNITION 


111 


The caps, used in covering the filler openings, should 
be removed when charging, and replaced when discharg¬ 
ing to exclude all dust and dirt. No metallic or con¬ 
ducting element should ever be inserted in these open¬ 
ings. 

Capacity .—The capacity of a storage battery expressed 
as 40 or 60 amp.hr. means literally the ability of that 
battery, when fully charged, and in normal condition, to 
deliver approximately one ampere for forty or sixty 
hours, as the case may be, but does not imply that a 
current of forty or sixty amperes may be discharged for 
one hour. The lower the rate of discharge, the greater 
the length of time the battery will hold up, and the 
greater the discharge, necessarily the shorter its life. 

Testing .—The practice of testing a storage battery to 
determine whether or not it is charged, by momentarily 
completely short-circuiting its terminals to observe the 
spark, is, to say the least, misleading. A cell may be 
so nearly exhausted that its voltage would not force 
enough current through the resistance of an ignition 
circuit to “spark” an engine, and yet, if its terminals 
were short-circuited momentarily, a vigorous spark 
would result. The practice is injurious to the battery, 
and it does not have a fair show with this kind of 
treatment. 

An increase of from 30 to 50 degrees in the density, 
with a corresponding rise in voltage, of say ten to 
fourteen hundredths of a volt, denotes a charged con¬ 
dition, while a decrease of these values proportionately 
denotes a discharged condition. Care should be exer¬ 
cised in recharging, to see that the positive wire from 
the source of supply is connected to the positive terminal 
of the battery, and the negative wire to the negative 


112 


TRACTION FARMING 


terminal. Any other connection will result in the bat¬ 
tery receiving its charge in the reverse direction and cause 
trouble. It is of no consequence, however, which terminal 
is grounded, and which connected to battery side of coil 
in an ignition circuit, though it is good practice to change 
polarity occasionally, as this will cause a more even 
wear of the platinum contact points, in either the make 
and break, or vibrator coil. 

If for any reason the battery is to lie idle for any 
length of time, it should be fully charged, then the solu¬ 
tion should be withdrawn and the jars filled with dis¬ 
tilled water, so as to cover the elements completely, 
and the battery set away, free from grease and dirt. 
Never allow the battery to remain idle and uncharged. 

Reference has already been made to the specific 
gravity or weight of the electrolyte as compared to that 
of water. The specific gravity is tested by means of an 
instrument called a hydrometer. 

At the end of the complete discharge the specific 
gravity will read somewhere about 1.15. If only half 
discharged, then about 1.20. If only one-quarter, 1.125, 
or three-quarters, 1.175, so that one may arrange a 
scale whereby the amount of charge used, or that re¬ 
maining in the cells, may be estimated. 

On re-charging, the specific gravity will rise from its 
reading of 1.15 or whatever it may be, to that of 1.25 
again, thereby indicating the cell has received its full 
charge. In cases where the specific gravity will not 
show any rise during or at the end of its charge, it in¬ 
dicates a short circuit, and the cell has not received its 
charge. In cases where the specific gravity comes up 
to 1.25 at the end of its charge, but falls to a lower 
figure during a period of idleness or standing for say 


MODERN IGNITION 


113 


24 or 48 hours, also indicates a short circuit, or else 
local action (or internal discharge), due to contamina¬ 
tion of the electrolyte by some impurity. 

The plates should always be kept covered with their 
electrolyte, or acid, because if they are exposed or out 
of the liquid, a sulphation occurs of such a nature as to 
damage the plates irreparably, besides which the exposed 
surfaces are inactive and useless. 

Sulphuric acid should never be added to the cells to 
:ompensate loss, unless such loss has been caused by 
a spilling of the acid, and then first ascertain the specific 
gravity of the acid remaining in the cells and make up 
with diluted acid of the corresponding specific gravity 
till the plates are again covered. In all cases of adding 
to, or compensating evaporation losses (except as above 
stated) nothing should be used but pure distilled water, 
and absolutely pure and clean acid. A healthy battery 
used continuously, should not require an addition of 
acid more than once a week. 

It is bad practice to put a wire across the positive 
and negative terminals for the purpose of testing to 
see if there is a spark. It is almost a dead short circuit 
and is very detrimental to the cell owing to the heavy 
current passing, even though it be for only a few sec¬ 
onds of time. In order to ascertain the strength of 
current it is best to use a small pocket voltmeter, reading 
from 0 to 3 volts. 

Fluid Batteries .—Although the fluid primary cell is 
very useful in stationary work, it cannot very well be 
used on traction engines, owing to the liability of the 
liquid electrolyte to spill or slop over. It can, however, 
be utilized for charging small storage batteries that are 
used for ignition purposes on traction engines in lo- 


114 


TRACTION FARMING 


calities where there is no incandescent light circuit at 
hand, or if the only current available is of the alternating 
type. The voltage of a fluid battery to be used for 
charging a storage battery should exceed the voltage of 
the storage battery by at least 30 per cent. Primary 
batteries of the open circuit type, such as salammoniac 
cells are useless for charging purposes. Only batteries 
of the closed circuit or constant current type are suit¬ 
able. 

A simple and inexpensive form of closed circuit bat¬ 
tery for charging purposes is the single liquid type, in 
which zinc and carbon electrodes are immersed in a 20 
per cent solution of sulphuric acid and water with ni¬ 
trate of soda as the depolarizing agent. For charging a 
4-volt storage battery four such cells are required, 
while for a 6-volt storage battery six cells will be neces¬ 
sary for a proper charge. This form of fluid battery 
has a voltage of 1.75 volts per cell. 

The articles necessary for a complete charging outfit 
are as follows: One small pocket ammeter reading up 
to 5 amperes, one two-point switch, one resistance coil 
or rheostat (home-made), one set of closed-circuit 
type of primary batteries and about 25 ft. of No. 16 
B. & S. Gauge, Okonite or Kerite stranded copper wire 
for the connections. 

The method of connecting the primary batteries, re¬ 
sistance coil (rheostat), ammeter and swicth is plainly 
shown in Figure 48. The positive pole of the primary 
battery should always be connected with the positive 
pole of the storage battery, the carbon element is al¬ 
ways the positive electrode in both dry and primary 
forms of batteries. If the polarity of the terminals of 
the storage battery are not indicated on the case by 


MODERN IGNITION 


115 


the + and — signs, which represent positive and nega¬ 
tive respectively, their polarity may be readily ascer¬ 
tained by means of a piece of moistened litmus paper 
(paper soaked in a solution of iodide of starch.) Place 
the piece of moistened litmus paper on a board or other 
non-conducting material and bring the wires from the 
storage battery terminals into contact with opposite ends 
of the paper for a few seconds. One end of the paper 
will turn red, this will be the end next to the wire con¬ 
nected with the negative pole of the storage battery. 

The resistance coil or rheostat may be made very 
easily as follows: Take a piece of hard wood, 3 ins. 
sq. and 15 ins. long, and turn down about 13 l / 2 ins. of 
its length to a diameter of 2j/2 ins. as shown in Figure 
48. Upon this turned portion cut with a round-nose 
tool a groove or thread one-sixteenth of an inch deep 
with 8 threads to the inch. 

In this groove wind about 50 ft. of No. 16 B. & S. 
gauge bare soft iron wire, and connect with a bar and 
sliding contact as shown in Figure 48. To charge the 
storage battery, move the sliding contact to the right 
until all the resistance is in use, then move the switch 
finger to the point on the left and adjust the sliding con¬ 
tact by moving it to the left until the ammeter shows 
3 amperes. Moving the switch finger to the right will 
put the battery in the circuit for charging, and the slid¬ 
ing contact should again be adjusted until the ammeter 
shows 3 amperes. The sliding contact should be ad¬ 
justed from time to time to keep the charging current 
at 3 amperes. Should the storage battery be of 12 am¬ 
pere hour capacity, it will require 4 hours’ time to 
properly charge it, if 18 ampere hour capacity, the time 
required to charge it will be 6 hours. The ampere hour 


116 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 48. 















































































MODERN IGNITION 


117 


capacity of the storage battery, divided by the amperes 
of the charging current, will give the number of hours 
required to fully charge the battery when exhausted. 

After the storage battery is fully charged the elec¬ 
trodes should be lifted out of the solution as shown in 
Figure 48, by means of the cover to which they are at- 



FIGURE 49. 

tached as shown, and left there until the battery is again 
required for use. 

Box Coil Connection .—The connections on the inside 
of the box of an ordinary spark coil, are frequently 
something of a puzzle to the uninitiated, for upon open¬ 
ing an ordinary spark coil, all that the investigator finds 
is a box full of wax and if he wants to find out how 
it is connected up, it is necessary for him to melt out 
this wax, which operation commonly ruins the coil, un¬ 
less he is skillful enough to replace it and replace the 
parts correctly. In Figure 49 everything is shown from 



























118 


TRACTION FARMING 


the engine and battery to the wiring circuit, both in¬ 
side and outside the coil box, and by following these 
through carefully, one can get a good idea of the con¬ 
nections. Starting from the positive side of the bat¬ 
tery, the current flows up to the switch into the ground 
connections of the engine and to the center contact of 
the timer; from this it goes to the insulated contact as 
soon as the timer turns around into position to make 
this connection. From here it goes to the binding posts 
on the front of the coil, which is usually marked “In¬ 
terrupter” or “Int.’ and then disappears in the interior 
of the box. 

When it goes inside of the box, it either goes first to 
the vibrator or to the primary winding. It does not 
make any difference which of these it goes to first; the 
drawing shows it passing to the primary winding which 
is a coarse wire, usually of about No. 18 to No. 20 B. & 
S. and usually wound in two layers, though in some of 
the shorter and smaller coils it is wound in three. After 
passing through the various convolutions of the winding, 
it goes to the vibrator; through the contacts of the vi¬ 
brator and out to the binding post which is usually 
marked “battery” or “bat.”; from this it goes back to 
the battery thus completing its circuit. 

Action of Electric Current .—Every electric current no 
matter how it is generated, must complete its circuit; 
that is, it must go back to its starting point. If it is not 
possible for it to go back to its starting point, the cur¬ 
rent does not flow, though in the case of some extremely 
high tension currents, such as the secondary current 
which is generated in the spark coil and which is shown 
by the smaller winding outside of the insulated tube, 
the current can go back through the air, but as the air 


MODERN IGNITION 


119 


circuit has so much resistance, only a small portion can 
go back. The rest of the energy of the coil is dissipated 
or used up in forcing this small portion back. When 
the secondary terminals of the coil are brought close 
together, this current passing back through the air can 
be readily seen in the form of a spark and this spark 
is what is used for ignition purposes, but if the spark¬ 
ing terminals are separated by too great a distance the 
visible spark no longer passes and in the bright light 
no action can be seen, but if the coil is taken into a 
dark room and operated there, a thin bluish mist will be 
seen radiating in all directions from the exposed portions 
of the secondary circuit. The greatest part of this 
bluish light will stream toward the nearest portions of 
the secondary circuit which are of the opposite potential, 
or in other words, they will try to go back to the nearest 
part of the other end of the coil. In order to afford an 
easy path back from the end of the spark plug and 
avoid wiring, one end of the secondary is usually con¬ 
nected to one end of the primary winding. The rea¬ 
son for this can be easily seen by following out the 
wires in Figure 49. Starting from the secondary bind¬ 
ing post A the current is generated in the secondary 
winding of the coil between post A and B; it passes 
up to the insulated portions of the plug down through it, 
and jumps across to the grounded side and from here 
it must go back to the binding post A as stated above. 
In order that it may go back easily, binding post A 
is connected to the battery binding post and through 
the battery binding post and connections to the metal 
part of the engine. The battery does not affect the 
secondary current in any way, so that it can pass through 
it easily; if however, as sometimes happens, this binding 


120 


TRACTION FARMING 


post A is not connected to the battery binding posts 
and is left entirely free so that it does not connect with 
anything then the current has a much more difficult 
task before it in order to get back to the post A. Some 
of it will be dissipated in the air from the engine bed 
and frame, but more of it will pass down through the 
insulation inside of the coil into the primary (which, 
as will be seen, is only separated from this secondary 
winding by the insulating tube) and in this way com¬ 
pletes for itself the circuit which should have been 
completed by the wire shown running from the binding 
post A to the battery binding post. This puts a very 
heavy strain upon the insulation and as the passage of a 
current through an insulating medium can be likened 
to blows of a hammer upon a piece of cast iron, it is 
practically only a question of time when it can break 
down the insulation and form an easy path for itself 
by burning and carbonizing the insulating material so 
that it can pass easily from A to the primary winding. 
While it is hammering its way down through the insula¬ 
tion, the spark at the plug will be very weak; it will 
probably show that there is a spark, though the plug is 
taken out and laid on the cylinder and tested in the 
air, but upon trying to run the engine the spark will be 
so weak that it will not give good service; in fact, it is 
doubtful if it will fire the mixture, although it might 
under favorable circumstances. As the insulation be¬ 
gins to break down however, the spark at the plug will 
begin to strengthen up and when the current has suc¬ 
ceeded in getting down through, the spark will be fairly 
good, though not as good as it would be if the connec¬ 
tions were made across from post A to the battery post, 
and even after a coil has broken down at one end in 


MODERN IGNITION 


121 


this way, connecting this wire in, will materially help 
the spark; the coil could still be used for a connection 
similar to that shown in Figure 51, but would be worth¬ 
less for the connections shown in Figure 52, for the 
reason that as soon as the spark from the binding post 
reached the ground through the spark plug, it would not 
pass into the second spark plug and back to the second¬ 
ary, but would go through the ground connection and 



back to the battery. In a great many coils this con¬ 
nection from binding post A to battery binding post 
is made inside the coil box so that binding post A 
is conspicuous by its absence, but it should be always 
borne in mind that an electric current, no matter how 
it is generated must go back to its starting point in 
order to do any useful work and the easier it can get 
there the more work it can do with the same amount 
of energy. 

Battery Output .—This subject is in relation to the 
amount of energy that 6 cells of dry battery can give 
under different connections. 

If each cell has \y 2 volts and 15 amperes, it follows 
that each cell is capable of giving 22 J / 2 watts; for a watt 
is a volt multiplied by an ampere; thus 5 volts mul- 






















122 


TRACTION FARMING 


tiplied by 10 amperes would equal 50 watts, so 1^X15 
=22y 2 watts, (the watt is the unit of electrical power) 
so that our six cells of battery are capable of exerting 
a force equal to 22]/ 2 times G or 135 watts. This is 
regardless of connections or ways of grouping the cells, 



as we can readily see by analyzing these methods of 
connecting these cells. 

Referring to Figure 50, we have 6 cells all con¬ 
nected to the same pair of wires, each cell putting V/> 



volts and 15 amperes into the line; this is a parallel 
connection, so that the total amperage of the 6 cells 
is available, but only the voltage of one cell for the 
reason that each cell is connected singly to the line 



















MODERN IGNITION 


123 


and its voltage is not reinforced, nor does it reinforce 
the voltage of the other cells. 

Perhaps this would be more clearly seen by consid¬ 
ering each cell as a pump, capable of pumping 15 gal¬ 
lons of water per minute at a pressure of iy 2 lbs. into 
a pipe line; it can be readily seen then, that the output 
would be that of the combined pumps and the pressure 
of one. 

In Figure 51 the six cells are connected in series and 
the voltage of each one is added to the others; so that 
we have the combined voltage of 6X1^—9 volts, but 
as the current or amperage has to pass through the re¬ 
sistance of all the group, the output in amperes is the 
same as only one cell or 15 amperes, therefore our an¬ 
swer is 9 voltsX15 amp.=135 watts; our simile of the 
pumps will apply here as well as before. 

In Figure 52 if we cover up any two groups of cells 
it can be readily seen that we have two cells in series 
in each group, and the three groups in parallel, thus 
giving us the voltage of the two cells in series and the 
amperage of the three groups, that is, each group of 2 
cells gives a pressure of 3 volts and an amperage of 
1 cell because as previously explained, the two are in 
series, so we have 3 times 15 amperes, or 45 amps. X 3 
volts, which equals 135 watts. 

Figure 53 is practically the same connection as Figure 
50. This can be readily seen if we imagine the cells 
from groups B and C disconnected from the line and the 
terminals of C connected to B end cell and C connected 
to B end and as the connection is the same, the same rea¬ 
soning will apply to it as to Figure 50. 

As each cell can only do a certain amount of work it 
naturally follows that the total amount done by any 


124 


TRACTION FARMING 


group of cells, will be the same, regardless of the way 
they are connected, unless some are connected so as to 
oppose others. 

The Battery Box .—Too much care cannot be taken 
with the installation of batteries, for in many cases where 
the blame has been placed on the cells for faulty igni¬ 
tion and short life, the real fault has been found in 
the connection and the arrangement. 

For the best service the batteries should be placed in 
a covered box for protection against dirt and moisture, 
and for convenience the cover should be hinged. Pro¬ 
vide a separate box for the storage of tools and spare 
parts, and above all avoid laying metallic objects of 
any description on top of the batteries or their connec¬ 
tions. 

Connections and wiring should be arranged so that 
they are not disturbed by vibration nor by the opening 
and closing of the cover. Wires that project high 
enough above the cells to come into contact with the 
cover are in many cases the cause of mysterious mis¬ 
firing, for a few slams of the cover will loosen the bind¬ 
ing screws, and the vibration of the engine will do the 
rest of the mischief. 

Dry batteries should always be allowed to retain 
their paper jackets so that there will be no danger of 
internal short circuits caused by the zincs of the cell 
coming into contact with one another. To insure the 
separation of the individual cells wooden partitions 
should be placed in the battery box, forming pigeon 
holes. Preferably, the partitions should be boiled in 
paraffine to prevent the wood from absorbing moisture. 

With marine engines and portables, which are ex¬ 
posed to the weather, it is good practice to fill the box 


MODERN IGNITION 


125 


with melted paraffine after the cells are in place, for 
the solid wax prevents the entrance of • moisture and 
holds the cells firmly in place so that they or their con¬ 
nections are not affected by vibration. 

Loose connections will always result from sliding 
loose cells, and after installing they should be fastened 
in place by wooden wedges driven between the cells 
and their partitions. 

Short Circuits .—Occasionally short circuits give more 
trouble than a complete breakdown of the entire igni¬ 
tion system, because the symptoms are very much like 
carbureter troubles. A good and rapid way to test all 
parts of the ignition circuit is to run the engine in 
the dark, when the slightest leakage from the high ten¬ 
sion wires or along the porcelain of the plugs will be 
at. once seen by the faint light which indicates the short 
circuit. If the high tension insulation is carried out 
with a poor quality of rubber, or is too thin, a “short” 
may take place at any part. The slightest film of mois¬ 
ture or lubricating oil on the outer part of the porcelain 
plug also tends to leading away the spark and causing 
misfiring. 


CHAPTER XII. 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL. 

How best to mix gasoline and air is one of the im¬ 
portant problems which confronts the gasoline engine 
designer and builder and also one which gives the in¬ 
dividual owner who is trying to improve his power plant 
no little concern. As the power derived from a gasoline 
engine depends upon the speed with which the fuel 
burns, and that depends to a considerable extent upon 
thoroughly diffusing the gasoline in the air, it is readily 
seen that the subject is one of vital importance. 

The widely varying speeds with which gasoline may 
burn was aptly illustrated by a writer who said in sub¬ 
stance that a given amount of gasoline placed in a small 
dish and lighted will burn in a certain length of time; 
if burned in a large receptacle, like the drip pan some¬ 
times placed under a car, it will be exposed to more air 
and will therefore be consumed in a much shorter time. 
If vaporized and mixed with air in proper proportions 
it will burn with a sharp explosion occupying an almost 
immeasurably small fraction of a second. 

These are familiar truths to all, but their mention will 
help to impress upon the mind the extreme importance 
of thoroughly mixing gasoline and air in order to pro¬ 
mote rapid combustion. While proper proportioning is 
most desirable, complete diffusion of these proportions 


126 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


127 


must not be overlooked nor its value underestimated. 
Evidence of a lack of thorough mixing is indicated by 
the stratification sometimes shown to exist in the com¬ 
pressed charge by manograph cards taken from gasoline 
engines. 

Carbureter spraying nozzles are made in considerable 
variety, and an impartial experimenter after carefully 
and repeatedly testing six of the best established forms 
found a considerable range in the power derived from 
the same motor while using the same amount of fuel, 
noting a variation of 19 per cent in engine efficiency 
between the two extremes, which can only be accounted 
for by the theory that some nozzles gave a more thor¬ 
ough mixing of fuel and air than others. 

Carbureters with very small nozzles may produce a 
fine spray, but would appear subject to clogging with 
the sediment invariably found in gasoline tanks even 
after the most careful filtering. Instead of reducing 
openings through which gasoline must pass it is safer 
to employ some other aid to diffusion rather than use 
nozzles which are liable to stoppage. 

Gauze in the inlet pipe has its objections, but it is a 
help which ought not to be neglected. It has the ad¬ 
vantages of being efficient, without moving parts, com¬ 
pact, inexpensive, silent, and does not appear liable to 
clog. 

Passing the mixture through several layers of fine 
gauze tends to cut it up and mix it intimately. It also 
provides a staggered route through which the mixture 
must go, and owing to the small openings and many ob¬ 
structions any globules of gasoline are shattered into a 
state of fine division. No experience or experiments 
show it, but it seems as though the shape of the nozzle 


138 


TRACTION FARMING 


would be of little consequence if the mixture is passed 
through several layers of fine gauze. 

The gauze first experimented with consisted of three 
layers made of copper wire and having 110 meshes to 
the linear inch, with two projecting layers of 16-mesh. 
The fine gauze, with the large number of 12,100 open¬ 
ings per square inch, each less than .0056 in. square, 
would seem to insure a very thorough cutting up of 
whatever passes through it. That the inlet admitted of 
being obstructed by three layers of fine gauze, the open¬ 
ing through each of which suggested only 38 per cent 
of the nominal size of the pipe, must have been due to 
the liberal margin allowed by the designer. 

Vaporizing Functions of the Carbureter .—An ideal 
gasoline carbureter should deliver the fuel mixture in 
as completely aeriform a condition, that is, as free from 
entrained liquid hydrocarbon, as does the mixing valve 
of a gas engine; but the only type of gasoline carbureter 
which approaches measurably near this ideal in this re¬ 
spect is the surface carbureter, in which the required 
air circulates over a very large expanse of gasoline 
wetted surface in the presence of an adequate available 
heat supply. A fuel vapor practically free from admix¬ 
ture of entrained liquid can be obtained from one of 
. these vaporizers. The average carbureter of the pre¬ 
vailing float feed spraying type only imperfectly per¬ 
forms the work which it is designed to do. It occupies 
a position between a liquid fuel injecting device and a 
vaporizing device of ideal characteristics. The charge 
which it delivers to the intake piping consists, as a rule, 
of a rather weak mixture of gasoline vapor and air, in 
which are carried small drops of gasoline, in a condi¬ 
tion very similar to that in which water exists in prim- 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


129 


ing in steam. In the inlet piping this mixture may be 
modified either by a reduction of the entrained globules 
of gasoline and a consequent increase in richness of 
the aeriform portion of the charge, or less probably by 
a further increase in the proportion of condensed gaso¬ 
line. In either case, except under very unusually favor¬ 
able circumstances, some liquid gasoline reaches the 
cylinders, and is utilized, if at all, as is the fuel sup¬ 
plied by the injector system spoken of above. Its par¬ 
tial evaporation in the cylinder serves to enrich the aeri¬ 
form portion of the charge furnished by the carbureter, 
but it is usually only partially volatilized, and whatever 
portion escapes volatilization is lost, and much worse 
than lost, as cylinder incrustations and an offensive ex¬ 
haust result from it. 

A volatile fluid, like gasoline, when it escapes in a 
finely subdivided and in a heated condition from a re¬ 
gion of higher to a region of lower pressure, passes very 
rapidly into vapor. The extent to which the gasoline 
in a regular carbureter can advantageously be heated is, 
however, extremely limited, for if its temperature is 
greatly raised vaporization will take place in the passage 
of the jet, vapor will flow through it instead of liquid, 
and its capacity for passing fuel will fall to a small 
value and only an unworkably weak charge will result. 
Heating the float chamber by means of a jacket up to 
the safe limit materially increases the tendency toward 
the gasification of the fuel, especially as the gasoline 
when leaving the jet and entering the float chamber 
meets with a pressure slightly below atmosphere. The 
denser the fuel used the higher the temperature of the 
float chamber may be carried. 

There is very little* doubt that the supplying to the 


130 


TRACTION FARMING 


liquid fuel directly of sufficient heat to vaporize it is a 
far preferable method to that of depending upon the 
absorption of the requisite heat by contact of the fuel 
with hot surfaces after entering the vaporizing chamber. 
It has been repeatedly pointed out that preheating of 
the air for the mixture is a less desirable method of sup¬ 
plying the necessary heat than that of beating the liquid 
fuel, for the specific heat of air and its conductivity 
are low, and the heat required for the vaporization of a 
fuel globule is applied externally to that globule by the 
warmed air. 

In the case of a carbureter having a hot jacket about 
its vaporizing chamber there is constantly a film of gaso¬ 
line adhering to and taking its heat of vaporization from 
the warm walls, which film is constantly being renewed 
by the breaking against the walls of the globules from 
the jet. As the liquid laden air in the vaporizing cham¬ 
ber is in violent motion the chances of the liquid par¬ 
ticles meeting the warm walls are good, and the vaporiz¬ 
ing effect is good, so far as it goes. 

Heating Devices .—Heat from the circulating water 
only becomes available in its fullness after the motor 
has been run for a length of time sufficient to bring the 
temperature to the normal operative value. Strictly 
speaking, the temperature of the jacket water should 
increase with the instantaneous rate of fuel consumption, 
and in a way this is automatically brought about; but 
there is quite a time lag between a sudden call for in¬ 
creased fuel consumption and the rise in jacket water 
temperature which this brings about. 

Heat supplied from the exhaust is fully available as 
soon as the motor begins to run, and the exhaust tem¬ 
perature varies with the rate of fuel consumption with- 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


131 


out any time lag between the two. Jacketing with the 
exhaust has the objection, however, that water, excess 
lubricating oil and soot carried by the escaping gases 
are likely to foul and even to clog any small passages 
which may exist in the system. 

An internal combustion engine can be operated with 
any good carbureter. A measured quantity of fuel can 
be squirted upon the inlet valve during each suction 
stroke or introduced into the combustion space through 
a special injection nozzle. This practice is common in 
stationary work, where low rotary speeds prevail. The 
valve and the port walls and other adjacent surfaces 
swept by the entering charge constitute the vaporizing 
surfaces under these circumstances, and they have the 
advantage over the evaporating surfaces of many car¬ 
bureters of being in a constantly heated condition. Dur¬ 
ing the compression period, in such an engine, high tem¬ 
peratures are reached on account of the high pressure 
carried, and vaporization is thus completed. Liquid fuel 
cannot burn as such, and can only unite with oxygen 
when in the aeriform condition. Whatever fuel remains 
in the liquid condition up to the beginning of exhaust 
is ejected unburned, and all fuel failing of vaporization 
up to the end of the compression stroke is very ineffi¬ 
ciently utilized. 

Adjustments .—First adjust for slow running. Set 
the spark back, shut off the air valve, and close the 
throttle slightly. Under such conditions a richer mix¬ 
ture will be required than for high speeds. First close 
the needle valve and then open it little by little until 
the engine runs steadily. Give it just a little more gaso¬ 
line than it seems to need under these conditions. By 
all means have the engine driving its load while making 
these tests. 


132 TRACTION FARMING 

i 

Next, open the throttle and advance the spark slightly. 
You will find then that more air is needed. Supply this ' 
by diminishing the compression of the air-valve spring. 
Let the engine run for some little time after each ad¬ 
justment, especially if it is a two-cycle engine. 

After this, advance the spark as far as it will stand; 
that is, until the engine begins to skip. The final ad¬ 
justment may now be made, generally by admitting a 
little more air, and perhaps a very little more gasoline. 
Juggle it until you get the maximum speed. When once 
set, leave it alone. 

In multiple cylinder engines, each cylinder may be 
tested out separately by shutting off the spark from the 
others. This will often show that some cylinders re¬ 
quire more fuel than the others, in which case the best 
results will be obtained by using the average. 

Gasoline Engine Backfiring .—By the word “backfir¬ 
ing” is meant the explosion of a charge or a part of it 
when the inlet valve is open and the mixture is entering 
the cylinder. The inlet valve being open, allows the 
force pressure or expansion to escape into the carbureter 
or mixer, or into the crankcase in a two-cycle engine. 
This often causes a regular shot gun report, which seems 
to, and actually does, come out of the open end of the 
inlet pipe. It has been expressed in different terms, 
“shooting out of the intake pipe,” “exploding in the car¬ 
bureter or crankcase,” etc. But what is the cause of it, 
and how may it be overcome, are questions that all op¬ 
erators are interested in. It is known that oftentimes 
feeding a little more gasoline will overcome the trouble, 
but why this will do it is not generally known. In the 
majority of stationary and portable gasoline engines no 
attempt is made at keeping the air and gasoline at con- 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


133 


stant proportions as is done in the automobile carbureter. 
In the ordinary gasoline engine, after it is started, the 
air volume entering the cylinder remains constant, and 
if the gasoline needle is set a little too close, the mixture 
verges on the rare point, which causes it to burn slowly 
and continues a flame in the cylinder quite often during 
the entire exhaust stroke. And even after the intake 
valve opens and the fresh mixture comes rushing in, 
there yet lingers a flame from the previous combustion, 
which instantly ignites the new charge as it enters the 
cylinder. The flame spreads through the entire mixture 
clear into the mixer or carbureter which, the inlet valve 
being open, results in a backfire. One can readily un¬ 
derstand then how feeding more gasoline, so as to in¬ 
sure a rich, quick-burning mixture, which will consume 
itself before the end of the exhaust stroke will prevent 
further backfiring from this cause. 

Carbon in Cylinders .—Carbon deposit in the cylinder 
is one of the most fruitful sources of trouble in a gaso¬ 
line engine. If the cylinders get too much lubricating 
oil a portion of it will work up past the pistons; the 
intense heat will consume or evaporate the oil, leaving 
a deposit of carbon; this may be augmented by too rich 
a mixture, which serves to deposit lamp black or carbon 
in a film on the inside and top of the compression cham¬ 
ber and on the heads of the pistons. The films thus 
formed will in time commence to scale and, the projec¬ 
tions becoming fused by the heat of the explosions, will 
serve to prematurely ignite the charge. 

The symptoms are backfiring and knocking in the cyl¬ 
inders, as if the spark were too far advanced. An al¬ 
most infallible symptom of excessive carbon deposit in 
the cylinders is the motor showing plenty of power at 


134 


TRACTION FARMING 


high speed, but deficient in hill-climbing on high gear. 
At low engine speeds the incandescent carbon projections 
serve to pre-ignite the charge, thereby reducing the 
power of the motor. The cure is to take off the cyl¬ 
inders and scrape off the carbon deposit, being careful 
not to scratch the cylinder walls. The preventative is 
to so regulate the oil feed as to give the cylinders enough, 
but not too much, oil. 

Carbon will also form on the porcelain portion of the 
spark plugs, thereby furnishing a circuit, which the high 
tension current may travel over, rather than jump be¬ 
tween the sparking points of the plug. Usually only a 
part of the current will pass by way of the carbon film, 
still leaving a weak spark at the points. This causes 
intermittent firing. 


CHAPTER XIII. 


COOLING SYSTEMS. 

The function of the water jacket—or of any other 
device for cooling the cylinder—is to prevent the heat 
of the metal from rising to such a degree as to impair 
the lubrication, and also to prevent pre-ignition of the 
charge. If the metal is cooled too much a portion of 
the heat of combustion is wasted by being uselessly con¬ 
ducted away. In a water cooled cylinder the tempera¬ 
ture of the water cannot well be allowed to rise above 
212 degrees Fahr., but this temperature of the jacket 
water might conceivably result in cooling the metal too 
much, particularly if the cylinder bore is small and the 
walls thin. 

Engines having water cooling systems should receive 
more careful attention perhaps than those having air or 
oil cooling systems. Water left for any length of time 
when the engine is not being used, will gradually find 
its way through the packing at the cylinder head, caus¬ 
ing corrosion in the inlet and exhaust valves. When 
the work for the season has been completed the water 
should be drawn off and the valves left open. Cylinders 
may become overheated by the improper flow of water 
through the cylinder water jacket or through the accumu¬ 
lation of dirt or scales in the water jacket. 

The water supply and feed should be very carefully 


135 


136 


TRACTION FARMING 


watched in the operation of gasoline engines, as it is 
very often the seat of annoyance and not infrequently 
serious trouble. Pure, clear water is about as easily 
obtained as dirty water. 

Fans used for cooling the cylinders are of various de¬ 
signs, most of them having four, five or six blades. 

The average speed of revolution is about 1J4 times the 
speed of the engine. Fans consume but little power and 
serve to discharge the heated air away from the cyl¬ 
inders by replacing it with a constant current of cool 
air. These fans may be driven from the engine shaft 
by belt, gear wheels or friction drive. If the engine is 
water cooled, the system may be either the hopper cool¬ 
ing system or the closed jacket circulatory system. If 
either of the two methods are used, it will be necessary 
to drain the cooling systems when the engine is not run¬ 
ning, in cold weather, unless an anti-freezing solution is 
used in the hopper cooler. 

Anti-Freezing Solutions .—The most widely used prep¬ 
arations, which are easily obtained, are wood alcohol, 
glycerine and calcium chloride, the first named being 
more favored, because it has no injurious effect on either 
the rubber connections, the metal piping or the water 
jacket of the cylinder, whereas calcium is apt to attach 
to the metal, and glycerine, in time, dissolves the rubber 
hose connecting the radiator to the motor. 

The wood alcohol solution is usually preferred, because 
it does no damage to the parts, and has no faults, ex¬ 
cept that it evaporates. Wood alcohol differs from glyc¬ 
erine in one very essential particular, in that it is the 
wood alcohol that boils off instead of the water.- 

It can be used in either small or large quantities, ac¬ 
cording to the occurrent drops in temperature of the 


COOLING SYSTEMS 


137 


latitudes in which it is employed, and the following will 
give a good idea of what may be expected of the various 
proportions of the mixture: 

A 10 per cent solution in water freezes at 18 above 
zero. 

A 20 per cent solution in water freezes at 5 above 
zero. 

A 25 per cent solution in water freezes at 2 below 
zero. 

A 30 per cent solution in water freezes at 9 below 
zero. 

A 35 per cent solution in water freezes at 15 below 
zero. 

A 40 per cent solution in water freezes at 24 below 
zero. 

It will be readily seen that a 30 per cent solution will 
be ample for all occasions. In many cases one filling of 
the radiator with this solution will last through the win¬ 
ter, but should any loss occur in the radiator equal parts 
of water and alcohol should be added. 

Calcium chloride is a very effective cooling agent, but 
unless the chemically pure article is used, there is dan¬ 
ger of corrosion of the metal with which it comes in con¬ 
tact. Crude calcium chloride retails at about 8 or 10 
cents per pound, but the chemically pure article is worth 
about 25 cents per pound in small quantities. A solu¬ 
tion of 5 pounds of calcium chloride to each gallon of 
water will not freeze at any temperature above 39 de¬ 
grees below zero; but the following table will aid in pre¬ 
paring the proper solution for the different temperatures. 

1 pound for each gallon of water freezes at 27 above 
zero. 

2 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 18 above 
zero. 


138 


TRACTION FARMING 


3 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 1.5 below 
zero. 

33^2 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 8 be¬ 
low zero. 

4 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 17 below 
zero. 

5 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 39 below 
zero. 

A convenient way to prepare the solution is to first 
make a saturated solution of the calcium chloride and 
water, that is, to mix with a quantity of water at 60 
degrees Fahrenheit, all the calcium chloride the water 
will dissolve, and use equal parts of this solution and 
pure water. If chemically pure calcium chloride is used 
no trouble will result, but chloride of lime, often sold 
as pure calcium chloride, should be avoided. 

Glycerine is an effective agent, and as it will not crys¬ 
tallize in the water jackets it is preferable in this respect 
to calcium chloride, and it has the further merit of not 
requiring any renewal during the season, as it does not 
evaporate. It is, therefore, only necessary to add pure 
water to replace that which has evaporated. Several 
solutions of glycerine and water, with regard to de¬ 
grees of cold in which they may be safely used, follow: 

A 10 per cent solution freezes at 28 above zero. 

A 30 per cent solution freezes at 15 above zero. 

A 40 per cent solution freezes at 5 above zero. 

A 50 per cent solution freezes at 2 below zero. 

A 55 per cent solution freezes at 10 below zero. 

In using a glycerine solution care should be taken to 
thoroughly cleanse the jackets of any residue of crystals 
from a calcium solution previously used, as this residue 
will thicken and cloud the glycerine solutions and render 


COOLING SYSTEMS 


139 


them partially ineffective. Solutions of glycerine will 
thicken up when subject to low temperature, but will 
not solidify and, unless it does, it will not disrupt the 
piping of the radiator or the jackets of the cylinders. 

Assuming that the wood alcohol is to be preferred on 
some counts as less liable to choke up constricted pas¬ 
sages or attack the hose connections, and that outside 
these evils which are characteristic of a glycerine and 
water solution, it is a most desirable and substantial mix¬ 
ture; then it is well to consider the advisability of re¬ 
ducing the quantity of glycerine, and substituting alcohol 
instead. By the use of both wood alcohol and glycerine, 
the total proportion of water can be increased, and that 
is a step in the right direction on two counts, that is, cost 
and stability. The following combinations of half al¬ 
cohol and half glycerine and water may be used. 

A 10 per cent solution will freeze at 25 above zero. 

A 20 per cent solution will freeze at 15 above zero. 

A 25 per cent solution will freeze at 8 above zero. 

A 30 per cent solution will freeze at 5 below zero. 

A 35 per cent solution will freeze at 15 below zero. 

A common solution of salt (sodium chloride) may 
also be used. It remains fluid down to 0 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. An incrustation, however, occurs as the water 
evaporates, and it is claimed electrolytic action would 
follow its use. Common salt is cheap, but radiators are 
costly, delicate and composite in construction—that is 
to say, there are a plurality of metals in the makeup of 
radiators, hence electrolytic action would follow, due to 
the difference of potential nature to different metals im¬ 
mersed in a saline bath. 

Water cooling for the gas engine seems to be by far 
the most used. Most engines used for automobiles are 


I 


140 TRACTION FARMING 

of the water cooled type, the cooling being accomplished 
by a circulation of water from a tank or radiator to the 
jacketed walls of the cylinder. According to the laws 
of liquids the heated water will rise to the top while the 
cooler layers will fall correspondingly. This is known 
as the gravity system and will be found in use almost 
anywhere the gas engine is used. 

The pump or forced circulation is much used and has 
advantages over the gravity system as it keeps the wa¬ 
ter continually moving from the jacket of the cylinder 
to the supply tank or the radiator, which being em¬ 
ployed, a less quantity of water is required to cool the 
engine cylinder, or radiate the heat units. Efficiency of 
the gas engine depends much on the temperature of the 
water in the cooling system. The best practice is to 
supply water to the jacket at such a temperature that 
the hand can be held on the jacket, or in other words, 
below the boiling point. If steam is seen coming from 
the relief or outlet of the radiator, look for a stoppage 
in the pipes somewhere, though if the pumps are run in 
the wrong direction the result will often be the same. 
If the pump is to be tested, run the motor for a few 
minutes and ascertain how long it takes for the water to 
heat the top of the radiator tubes. It frequently hap¬ 
pens that some of the tubes are hot while others are 
cool, in which case the trouble will usually be found in 
the pump. The pump is used because it gives a more 
uniform heat at all times to the engine cylinder and 
this, of course, adds much to fuel economy. The design 
of the cylinder should be such that as much of the sur¬ 
face as possible be exposed to the air, the greatest pos¬ 
sible amount of freedom for the circulation of the wa- 
ter being the object. There are many types of radiators, 


COOLING SYSTEMS 


141 


but the honeycomb and the tube with small fins are used 
to a great extent. Motors using the natural water cir¬ 
culation require from 5 to M /2 sq.ft, of radiation to the 
horse power. Generally ^speaking, the thickness of the 
water jacket space around the cylinder is / of the bore 
of the cylinder, while many vary from this. If water 
from the hydrant is forced around the cylinder so as to 
keep it cool, the heat from the explosion is cooled down 
so quickly by radiation that the expansive force is ma¬ 
terially reduced, and this, of course, reduces the power 
with the same charge that would give good results with 
the water at the proper temperature. The object in 
using water is not to keep the cylinder cold, but simply 
to cool it sufficiently to prevent the lubricating oil from 
burning from the heat, for the hotter the cylinder the 
more power will be developed with the same charge 
drawn into the cylinder; providing the lubrication of 
the cylinder is not affected thereby. With the average 
engine, the consumption of fuel is more economical when 
under full load and the water temperature correct. 

Starting Up on a Cold Morning .—If the engine is one 
which has the hopper cooling system, using water only, 
it is best to pour a pail of warm water into the hopper 
on a cold morning. This should be allowed to stand a 
few minutes before starting. It may be necessary to 
add boiling water if weather is extremely cold. This 
operation is more difficult if the closed jacket is used. 
In such a case it will be necessary to make a connection 
with the overflow water pipe which enters the top of the 
cylinder. 

Another method of warming the cylinder is to lay a 
piece of heavy cloth which will absorb water very read¬ 
ily upon the carbureter or cylinder head or both, and 


143 


TRACTION FARMING 


upon this pour steadily a stream of boiling water. The 
hot water method has proven very efficient, and is much 
easier than cranking an engine until the cylinder is 
warmed up enough for starting. 




CHAPTER XIV. 

LUBRICATION. 

Engines which are air cooled require more lubrication 
in the cylinders, as well as a heavier oil because the tem¬ 
perature of the metal is invariably higher than where 
the water cooled system is in use. 

An oil suitable for this purpose must have three char¬ 
acteristic points, i.e., a good body, low in carbon, and 
lastly, it must have a very high fire test. That is, the 
temperature at which the vapor coming from the oil 
would ignite should not be lower than 500 to 600 degrees. 

Any lubricant leaving a large amount of carbon or 
residue should be carefully avoided. 

For the crank and crankshaft bearings, the same grade 
of lubricant as is used for the cylinder gives the best 
results, and the amount should be three to four drops 
per minute with the gravity system and a proportion¬ 
ately small amount with the force feed system. 

This method of lubrication is now being adopted on 
a large number of gas engines because of its reliability. 
A tank holding a quantity of oil is located at some con¬ 
venient point on the engine. A small force pump is 
w r orked from the crank, or camshaft, as the case may 
be, and forces the oil through brass or copper tubes 
directly to the bearings and by means of check valves 
located at the pump and also near the sight feed a pres- 


143 


144 


TRACTION FARMING 


sure of several pounds to the square inch is obtained 
and each drop of oil is assured of reaching the proper 
place. This system requires practically no attention 
other than refilling of the tanks. 

Where grease cups are used the caps or plungers 
should be screwed down at least two turns each hour. 
If a small quantity of graphite, about one tablespoonful 
to one pound of grease is used, one full turn of the cap 
or plunger each hour will be sufficient. The graphite 
and grease should be thoroughly mixed before filling 
the cup. 

The fact that the lubricators are feeding is not a sign 
that the oil is reaching the proper place. Be sure the 
ducts are open and the lubricant goes to the bearing. 

Where the splash system of lubrication is used the 
oil holder or base should be carefully cleaned before each 
filling. Wipe the inside of the holder with waste or a 
piece of cloth, being careful to remove all the particles 
of grit and sediment which will collect on the sides and 
bottom. 

Cylinder Lubrication .—In cylinder lubrication extreme 
caution should be exercised. Just enough oil should be 
used to thoroughly lubricate the piston and no more. 
An excess will be burned by the high heat, and will form 
carbon on the rings, cylinder walls and piston. This 
carbon will, in a short time, become heated, causing pre¬ 
ignition and in a four-cycle engine frequent regrinding 
of the valves will be necessary. The piston rings will 
also stick, causing them to wear uneven, and thereby 
much of the compression will be lost, as well as a large 
amount of the power which should be delivered. 

From eight to ten drops of oil per minute should be 
delivered to the cylinder, where common cups or in 


i i* 


LUBRICATION 


145 


other words, where the gravity system is used. With 
force feed this amount may be cut to five or six drops 
a minute, as they are much larger. An excess of oil in 
the cylinder will make itself known by the smoke from 
the exhaust pipe. 

Testing Oils .—Many animal and vegetable oils have 
a flashing point suitable to use in the gas engine cylinder, 
and yield a fire test sufficiently high to come above the 
requirements, but they contain acids that are injurious 
to the metal surfaces which they are intended to lubri¬ 
cate. 

A very simple test to detect acid in an oil is with blue 
litmus paper, which will show a pinkish color if there 
is any acid present. Another sensitive test, and a very 
practical one, is to partly cover a polished steel plate 
with a strip of flannel or lamp wick saturated with the 
lubricant to be tested. Expose this to the sunlight for 
about twenty-four hours. When the plate is wiped dry, 
if the lubricant is free from acid, the steel will have 
retained its gloss. If dull spots have developed on the 
surface covered, it is the sign of the presence of acid. 

The cold test is of great importance in all lubricants. 
Any kind of oil is subject to low temperatures at times 
if in cold climates. The cold test temperature is the 
point at which the oil congeals. In order that an oil may 
feed properly at all times it must have a very low cold 
test. Too low a cold test should not be demanded, 
however, as any advantage there is gained by a sacrifice 
in the heat tests. 

One requirement of a perfect lubricant is that it be 
consumed entirely or not at all, by the combustion in 
the cylinder. This would prevent all sooting due to the 
lubricant. Graphite fulfills the last requirement. It is 


146 


TRACTION FARMING 


not affected in any way by the temperature obtained in 
a gas engine cylinder. It forms a smooth coating over 
the surfaces. All microscopic grooves and holes are filled 
with it. It keeps the surfaces apart and improves com¬ 
pression by actually making the piston larger and the 
cylinder smaller. It helps to prevent binding of the 
piston. The use of graphite alone is not advised. But 
its good properties added to those of oil make their 
combination an excellent lubricant for cylinders and also 
bearings. 

It is not advisable to feed graphite in a common grav¬ 
ity feed oil cup. It may clog up the passage and cause 
trouble. It is often put into the cylinder through the 
spark plug hole with a bug gun, or blown in with a tube 
and quill. One should never use more than a small tea¬ 
spoonful for every pint of oil used. When a piston is 
taken out it should be thoroughly rubbed with graphite 
after being cleaned. Also any bearing and shaft when 
taken apart. Always use the fine graphite which is pre¬ 
pared especially for use where oil is also used. 

Soot in the Cylinder .—Soot in the cylinder may be 
removed at intervals without any particular amount of 
trouble if taken in time and not allowed to go for too 
long. Remove the spark plug and inject a small amount 
of kerosene and move the piston back and forth to al¬ 
low the carbon deposit to be cut up by the action of the 
oil. Gasoline will not answer the purpose, owing to its 
rapid evaporation. It is a very good practice to clean 
the engine at regular intervals, the frequency depending, 
of course, on its use. The cranks should be disconnected, 
the cylinder heads removed and the piston drawn from 
them. The cylinder may then be wiped out with a cot¬ 
ton rag saturated with kerosene, the piston and rings 


LUBRICATION 


14 ? 


cleaned, removing the gum deposit that has collected. 
After completing the operation, the parts should be well 
oiled before replacing, as this will allow the parts to 
work smooth from the start. 

When a squeak is heard, the engine should be stopped 
at once and the cause located, as it is evident that the 
squeak is caused by some part coming in contact with 
another with insufficient lubrication. For a noise of this 
kind it is well to look to some of the outside bearings 
other than the cylinder, as a dry cylinder will not be 
apt to squeak before it would seize. 

The cylinder head gasket should be examined at fre¬ 
quent intervals, as many times it will prove defective, 
allowing the compression to escape and hence a loss of 
power. Water in the cylinder is caused many times by 
the gasket being blown and the water having free access 
to the interior of the cylinder. This, of course, makes 
it impossible to start the engine and also causes the en¬ 
gine to stop many times while running. In repacking 
the cylinder head, nothing but the best packing should 
be used, as a poor grade of packing only adds to the 
motor troubles. Generally the motor manufacturer of¬ 
fers for sale a packing that is best adapted to the pack¬ 
ing of the cylinder head, and this should be used in pref¬ 
erence to something advertised by firms having the name 
and not the goods. Experiments with the gas engine 
are rather expensive and should, therefore, be avoided 
as much as possible. 

Knocking or Pounding in the Cylinder is caused gen¬ 
erally by over-rich mixture or advancing the spark too 
far, causing an ugly knock, and generally speaking, is 
very injurious to the motor. This sound, unlike any 
other knock about the motor, can be readily detected. 


148 


TRACTION FARMING 


A knock caused by an over-rich mixture is very similar 
to that caused by too early spark. A very rich mixture 
is very slow to ignite, and in many cases can be made 
so rich it will not ignite at all. If retarding the spark 
from the extreme fails to overcome the knock, it can 
generally be reduced by closing the throttle sufficiently 
to give more air and less gas. Advancing the spark to 
the extreme when the engine is running slow will many 
times cause a very ugly knock. The spark advance 
should be gradual as the engine gains in speed. Other 
causes of pounding in the cylinder, such as premature 
or self ignition, is a heavy pound, and unlike the sound 
caused from the early spark or the over-rich mixture. 
The knocks caused by some other defects are in no way 
as severe as the above-mentioned. Among some of the 
other causes of less importance is a lack of lubrication. 
This trouble should have immediate attention as soon 
as discovered as it will cause the cylinder to overheat 
and seize. A weak spark will cause a knock or, in other 
words, a sharp puffing sound. 


CHAPTER XV. 


HORSE POWER CALCULATIONS. 

Indicated Horse Power .—This is a computation based 
upon the mean effective pressure developed at each ex¬ 
plosion and is usually calculated from the same formula 
used in connection with steam engines: I. H. P.= 
PLAN 

-where P=mean effective pressure; L=length 

33,000 

of stroke (ft.) ; A=area of cylinder; N=number of ex¬ 
plosions per minute. This formula does not discrimin¬ 
ate between mechanical friction and losses in “fluid” 
friction. To get accurate results it is necessary to obtain 
the mean effective pressure after measuring the indi¬ 
cator diagrams recorded during both “power” and “cut¬ 
out” cycles as also “compression” and “suction” cards. 

It requires a considerable knowledge of gas engine 
practice to make use of the above formula. What is 
needed is one that is more arbitrary and fits the major¬ 
ity of cases and, moreover, requires the use of only a 
few facts, such as the diameter of cylinder, length of 
stroke and revolutions per minute. Such a formula will 
be of great value in estimating the probable power a 
gas engine should develop if well designed and properly 
built. 

Such a formula is given as follows: 

VX r -P-m. 

I. H. P.=-- 

10,000 


149 




150 


TRACTION FARMING 


which means that the indicated horse power is equal to 
the volume of the cylinder in cubic inches multiplied by 
the number of revolutions per minute and divided by 
10,000. The constant used varies from 9,000 to 14,000, 
depending upon certain types of engines; 10,000 is an 
average figure to use for four-cycle engines. The brake 
horse power will be from G 5 to 85 per cent of the result 
obtained; 80 per cent may be taken as an average: For 
example, a 6^2 in. x 9 in. engine at 300 r.p.m. gave by 
test 7.2 h.p. The area of the piston is 33.2 sq.in. and 
the volume of the cylinder is 298.8 cu.in.; multiplying 
by 300 and dividing by 10,000 gives 9.0 indicated horse 
power, or for a mechanical efficiency of 80 per cent 
7.2 brake horse power. 

These calculations involve the use of the indicator— 
an instrument for ascertaining the average pressure in 
the cylinder throughout the length of the stroke, and as 
its use requires considerable extra equipment and piping, 
it is seldom applied to traction engines, especially on 
the farm. A simple and fairly reliable rule for ascer¬ 
taining the horse power of any gasoline engine is as 
follows: 

Rule .—Multiply the square of the cylinder diameter 
in inches by the stroke in inches by revolutions per min¬ 
ute and divide by 16,000. 

Example: Single cylinder 5 in. diameter, stroke 7 
in., revolutions per minute 400. 

Sq. Dia. Stroke r.p.m. 

5 X 5 X 7 X 400 


16,000 


=4H h.p. 



HORSE POWER CALCULATIONS 


151 


If it is a two- or four-cylinder engine, then multiply 
by the number of cylinders, as follows: 

Cyl. 

5X5X7X 400 X2 

-—8^4 h.p. 

16,000 

In this formula the letters R. P. M. mean revolutions 
per minute. 

Another rule is as follows: Let D represent diameter 
of cylinder in inches; L length of stroke in inches; R 
number of revolutions per minute; N number of cyl¬ 
inders. 


DXLXRXN 

Four-cycle: -=h.p. 

16,000 

mately. 

dxlxrxn 

Two-cycle: -=h.p. 


delivered approxi- 


delivered approxi¬ 


mately. 


13,000 





CHAPTER XVI. 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES. 

To those who are inexperienced in the use of gasoline 
engines there are a great many things that are confus¬ 
ing. Usually the great trouble is in starting one of these 
engines even though the rules are followed. There are 
three or four prime reasons which prevent an engine 
from starting: The battery may be out of order, there 
may be water in the cylinder, the cylinder may be flooded, 
or the air is too cold and does not permit of the proper 
evaporation of gasoline. If the battery is a source of 
trouble, the first reason may be because of old age. An 
old battery may give indications of being strong, while 
in reality it is not strong enough to produce ignition. To 
test a battery without a testing meter is an easy matter, 
but this, of course, does not locate the weak cells and 
only gives information concerning the battery as a whole. 
In testing a battery disconnect the wires attached to the 
engine and bring the free ends together. If the battery 
is worn out a yellowish colored flame is produced as 
the two wires come in contact. If the battery is in a 
healthy condition there will be a dark blue or greenish 
flash. Another cause pertaining to the battery might 
also be found in a loose connection between two cells. 
The lock nut or thumb screw may be worked loose due 
to much handling; moving from place to place, if a 


152 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 


153 


portable engine is used; or by the vibration of the en¬ 
gine when the battery is attached to the engine skid or 
bed. Again, a person may find trouble in the leads or 
wires which connect the battery to the engine. This is 
usually a broken wire inside of the insulation. When 
the insulation is broken, such a break is very easily 
found, but if the insulation is not broken then it is much 
more difficult to locate the trouble. A good method to 
use in discovering this break is to hold the wire between 
the thumb and forefinger and with the other hand pull 
it through slowly. If the wire is moved carefully back 
and forth or up and down as it passes between the fin¬ 
gers the break will be easily detected. 

If, after properly inspecting the battery and all its 
connections, everything is found satisfactory, it would be 
well to investigate the igniter. There are times when 
water forms in the cylinder and collects upon the igniter 
points. This acts as a continuous connection between 
the two points and the electric current is not broken 
when the contact is broken. Lubricating oil sometimes 
acts in the same way when an excess is used. It takes 
but a moment to remove the igniter and if such obstruc¬ 
tion is found it is easily remedied. If an excess of wa¬ 
ter is found in the cylinder when the igniter is removed, 
it will be necessary to remove the cylinder head and re¬ 
pack in order to prevent such a leakage. Another case 
which might be cited at this point is the over-charging 
of the ingoing air, which often results in what is termed 
flooding, that is, too much gasoline is admitted for the 
amount of air that is being taken into the compression 
chamber. The gasoline does not evaporate and is drawn 
into the cylinder and acts to a certain extent as water. 

If an engine does not start after two or three turns 


154 


TRACTION FARMING 


it is best to investigate the battery, as has been explained, 
in order to prevent this Hooding. The best method to 
remove moisture in the cylinder when the engine is 
flooded is to open the air cocks on top or on the bottom 
of the cylinder, if such are provided. If not, hold the 
exhaust valve open and crank the engine until the mois¬ 
ture is expelled. It is more difficult to tell when the 
moisture has disappeared if the air cocks are not pro¬ 
vided, and probably the best method for determining this 
is to crank until you believe the moisture is out and then 
turn on the battery. If it is nearly removed and you 
now close the exhaust valve and give the crank one or 
two turns, you should receive a slight explosion, indicat¬ 
ing that the cylinder is not dry enough to attempt start¬ 
ing. If in the case of the air cocks, place the hand near 
the outlet and note if there is an appearance of gasoline 
as the air is driven out. If not, the same methods may 
be pursued as spoken of concerning the exhaust valve. 

Winter weather often causes more or less difficulty. 
The chief trouble is the slow evaporation of the gasoline. 
This can be overcome by applying internal or external 
heat. Some cylinders are provided with a primer for 
the purpose of charging the cylinder before the feed is 
opened. This method is found quite satisfactory, but 
also has its objections. An engine exposed to extreme 
cold, even if provided with a primer, is very liable to 
refuse to run and it will be necessary to resort to other 
methods. 

Air Locks in the Fuel Pipe .—An air lock between the 
carbureter and the supply tank can occur only when the 
pipe at some point between the tank and carbureter rises 
to a level higher than the carbureter, after having been 
at some other point nearer the tank below this level. If 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 


155 


the pipe is thus bent, it will be impossible for the air in 
the pipe to escape at any point other than through the 
carbureter float valve when the tank is filled. After the 
pipe has once been cleared of air its action will be as 
good as that of a straight or direct pipe, unless the hump 
of the bend is quite high and the flow through the pipe 
sluggish. If these conditions obtain it is often found 
that in hot weather the fuel in the pipe will be partially 
vaporized, and that this vapor will accumulate in the 
pipe at the rising bend, thus preventing the flow of fuel 
to the carbureter. This is most apt to occur if the lower 
parts of the pipe pass in close proximity to the exhaust 
pipe or other heated part. In such a case vapor will 
accumulate at the highest part, and may become present 
in such quantity as to stall the engine before it can be 
cleared out in the natural course of events. The remedy 
is so to arrange the pipe line that it is either a steady 
rise or drop from tank to carbureter, or is of U-shape 
with no points other than ends higher than the lowest 
point. 

Engine Fires Irregularly .—If the engine fires irregu¬ 
larly it may be due to any of the following causes: In¬ 
sulation broken on wires, causing a short circuit in the 
electric current. The contact at the timer may be poor, 
or the terminals on the coil may be loose or corroded. 
The spark plug may be cracked, or the points not prop¬ 
erly adjusted. They should be about 3/32 of an inch 
apart. In case of a weak battery they may be closed a 
trifle. The fuel supply may not be regulated correctly; 
it might be so rich it will not ignite, or so weak it can¬ 
not be ignited; in either case the engine would run ir¬ 
regularly. The spark coil may be poorly adjusted, or 
the platinum points pitted and stick. 


156 


TRACTION FARMING 


Sometimes an engine will fire regularly but have no 
power. In this case it may be due to poor compression, 
which is due to worn or broken rings, broken or warped 
valves, leaky gaskets, scored or worn cylinder walls and 
weak valve springs. The fuel mixture may be weak, 
or lubrication poor. Muffler may be stopped with a 
sooty deposit until the back pressure will destroy the 
power. The exhaust valve may be lifted only part way, 
not allowing the burned charge to be expelled from the 
cylinder. 

Broken Spark Plug .—A hissing sound can be caused 
by a broken spark plug allowing the compression to be 
forced through the fracture, or by the compression blow¬ 
ing past the rings. A cracked exhaust pipe, or an open 
compression cock, will emit a hissing sound, as will a 
blown gasket between the exhaust pipe and the muffler. 

Loss of Pozver .—In case the engine runs but seems to 
have no power, look for the following: Over-rich mix¬ 
ture, caused by too much gas and not enough air; weak 
mixture, caused by too much air and not enough gaso¬ 
line; loose or slipping fly wheel, insufficient lubrication, 
valves in bad condition, worn or broken rings, weak bat¬ 
teries and water in the gasoline. 

If the engine has been running well and gradually 
slows up, missing explosions, look for trouble in the fuel 
supply, or fouled spark plugs, insufficient lubrication, 
weak batteries, wiring defective, being nearly broken 
and hanging by a thread, or loss of compression. 

Explosions in the muffler are due to any of the fol¬ 
lowing: Exhaust valve stuck, weak mixture failing to 
burn in the cylinder and burning in the muffler, weak 
spark not firing the charge until the working stroke is 
nearly finished. In this case it will not burn while pass¬ 
ing to the muffler. 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 


157 


The water getting too hot, causing overheating, is 
generally caused by some of the following: Clogged 
pipes, incorrect timing of the valve, fan not working, 
pump broken or disconnected, oil in the water, muffler 
stopped up and a very late spark. In case there are ex¬ 
plosions in the mixing valve, or carbureter, look to the 
intake valve or its spring. The valve may be broken 
or leaking, or the spring may be weak, not seating the 
valve properly, or the mixture may be weak, late spark, 
or the valves incorrectly timed. When the engine be¬ 
gins to knock it should be stopped at once and some of 
the following examined: Flywheel may be loose on 
the shaft, or the cylinder may be loose, rings may be 
broken or badly worn, bearings may be loose and need 
tightening, carbon deposit on the cylinder head, spark 
occurring too early, over-rich mixture, loose cross head 
bearing, and defective lubrication—this will cause knock¬ 
ing when the piston is about to seize. Finally, see that 
all parts of the carbureter are clean; that the float feed 
is free and does not bind, and that clean gasoline free 
from water is fed to it. A single particle of water at 
the needle valve will put the whole thing out of business. 
But water will settle at the bottom of the float feed 
chamber. Drain this off occasionally into a glass to see 
if there is water in it. This will show at a glance, for 
the water and gasoline will remain unmixed. A good 
separator and strainer in the gasoline feed pipe will cure 
this too frequent cause of trouble. 

A Few Don’ts. —Don’t try to start before first turning 
the switch on, or without fuel and lubricating oil turned 
oni 

Don’t start with the spark in an advanced position; a 
broken arm may be the result. 


158 


TRACTION FARMING 


Don't use poor or worn insulated wire. 

Don’t wear your engine to pieces if it will not run. 
The trouble will in all probability be located by one of 
the following tests. Turn your engine over and see if 
the compression is correct; see if you have a spark; see 
that the gasoline supply is correct and has no water in 
it; see that the needle valve of carbureter is not clogged 
with dirt; see that the engine valves are not stuck and 
that they seat quickly. 

Don’t fail to read instructions on starting the engine. 

Don’t forget to keep cylinder lubricator filled and feed¬ 
ing. A dry piston will greatly reduce the power and cut 
the cylinder or piston. 

Don’t think that the cylinder should be perfectly cold. 
A gasoline engine works best when it is warm. 

Don’t keep the cylinder too hot or too cold. See that 
the air has full circulation. It is as necessary as gaso¬ 
line. An engine cannot pull a load if overheated. 

Don’t forget to throw switch out when engine is not 
in use. 

Don’t fail to use the kind of cylinder oil recommended 
by the maker. It may be better than the more expensive 
grades. 

Don’t try to wipe engine while in motion. 

Don’t use too much gasoline. The engine develops 
the most power when working on a smokeless mixture. 
A black smoke coming from exhaust means too much 
gasoline; a blue smoke means too much lubricating oil. 

Don’t try to start engine with cylinder full of gaso¬ 
line. Shut off same and turn engine over a few times 
before trying again. 

Don’t fail to see that everything is ready before try¬ 
ing to start engine. 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 


150 


Don't forget that nine times out of ten when the en¬ 
gine will not run you are at fault. Look around you 
and see what you have forgotten. It does no good to 
turn over the engine if conditions are not right. 

Don’t fail to look your engine over carefully when it 
is in first-class condition. You will then know how to 
fix it when something goes wrong. 

Don't fail to have a fine gauze screen put in your fun¬ 
nel and strain all gasoline put in the tank. 

Don’t allow the working parts of engine to knock or 
hammer. Pay special attention to the connecting rod 
and keep it as tight as will allow engine to turn easily 
and run cool. 

Don’t think your engine will not wear out and that 
it does not need some care. 

Don’t be afraid to try to fix your own engine. You can¬ 
not tell what a good job you can do until you have tried. 

Don’t allow dirt or dust to accumulate on top of your 
batteries, as there is danger of short-circuiting them. 

Don’t forget to see that the wires are tight on the 
batteries, and that they may become exhausted in five 
or six months. 

Don’t run electric bells with engine battery, and don’t' 
let your engine stand outdoors without some cover for 
protection from rain. If the batteries become wet they 
will be short circuited and become useless. 

Don’t forget to look into the gasoline tank before send¬ 
ing for an expert. This seems simple but it has been 
omitted many times at great expense. 

Don’t screw the spark plug in too tight—just enough 
to prevent leakage and hold firmly. 

Don’t use a wrench on the upper nut of the spark 
plug; you may break the porcelain. 


160 


TRACTION FARMING 


Don’t forget* to turn off the gasoline or lubricating oil 
when through running engine. 

Don’t run engine without water turned on. 

Don’t forget to draw off the water from the cylinder 
in freezing weather. 

Don’t place the coil and batteries so they will get wet. 

Don’t tinker with the carbureter as soon as engine 
misses—it may be the ignition. 

Don’t screw the vibrator down too stiff—your batter¬ 
ies will not last as long, and you will get no better re¬ 
sults. 

Don’t try to start the engine with the carbureter throt¬ 
tle wide open. 

Don’t try to wipe the engine while it is running. 

Don’t forget to fill the fuel tank. 

Don’t forget to fill the oilers. 

Don’t allow water to accumulate in the muffler. It 
will either cause loss of power or stop the engine. 

Don’t fail to have an extra set of batteries and spark 
plug on hand. 

Don’t be afraid to study your engine. 

Don’t look for leaks in the gasoline pipe or tank with 
a lighted match. 

Don’t fail to provide suitable foundation for the engine. 

Don’t fail to remember if the gasoline gets afire that 
water only spreads the flames; use a fire extinguisher, 
sand or blanket. If the gasoline in the carbureter catches 
fire, turn off the fuel at tank and open the throttle wide 

—it will draw the flames into the cylinder , and do no 
harm. 

Don’t get excited. 

Don’t bolt a magneto on to an iron or steel bar—use 
brass or aluminum. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


TYPES OF GASOLINE AND OIL FARM TRACTORS. 

A large variety of gas and oil tractors has been put on 

the market within the past few years, and while the gen¬ 
eral principles underlying their construction are neces¬ 
sarily the same in all, yet each one has some special 
features which characterize it. In the following pages 
the leading types of tractors are described in detail, and 
the special features of each are brought out. The de¬ 
scription of any one tractor to the exclusion of others 
would prevent a thorough presentation of much useful 
information, and yet it has not been possible to include 
all the tractors on the market. The only object has 
been to present enough to illustrate all the special fea¬ 
tures of the various engines. 


BATES ALL STEEL TRACTOR. 

Figure 54 shows the Bates traction engine which pos¬ 
sesses in a high degree the merit of compactness and 
freedom of the working parts from dust and the inclem¬ 
encies of the weather. The hood enclosing the engine 
and other working parts can be entirely removed when 
necessary. The cab also is easily removable. 


161 



162 


TRACTION FARMING 



The engine is of the two-cylinder opposed type and 
will develop 25 to 30 h.p. running at a speed of 500 r.p.m. 
The cylinders are cast separate from the crankcase and 
cylinder-heads, thus making it a very easy matter to 
replace the old cylinders with new ones, which it is 
claimed is cheaper than it is to rebore old cylinders. 


FIGURE 54. 

The cylinder-heads in which the inlet and exhaust 
valves operate, are cast separate from the cylinder, and 
are fitted with a water circulation for cooling the valves. 
The valves are cast iron, with steel stems operating in 
guides of sufficient length to insure perfect alignment. 
The valve head on which the valve gear operates is made 
of hardened steel. The valve gear is very simple, there 
being but one cam and two valve rods to mechanically 
operate four valves. The piston is hinged to the con¬ 
necting rod arid is provided with rings. The connection 

















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


163 


between piston and connecting rod is exactly in the mid¬ 
dle of the wearing surface, thus equally distributing the 
wear. The connecting rods, one of which is shown in 
Figure 55, are of the I beam type, provided with bab- 



FIGURE 55. 


bitted bearings on the crank pin end, and bronze on the 
end connecting with the piston. 

The cranks, together with the crank pins and crank¬ 
shaft, are made of 40 point carbon steel and propor- 



FIGURE 56. 

tioned according to stationary practice. Figure 56 shows 
the crankshaft and also illustrates the method of lubri¬ 
cating the crank pins by means of oiling discs in which 
the oil is injected and carried out to the pins by centrif¬ 
ugal force. The cranks are surrounded by a dust-proof 










164 


TRACTION FARMING 


case. Transmission is arranged in the lower portion of 
the crankcase and is provided with two speeds, forward 
and reverse. 

The gears are of steel. The friction clutch is of the 
periphery type, provided with one adjustment only. Pos¬ 
itive clutches are in the transmission case, running in 
oil, and arranged so as not to be engaged or disengaged 
while the friction clutch is in service. They are also 
provided with means for preventing the use of more 
than one speed at a time. The governor is arranged on 
the camshaft and is of large diameter, giving a high 
peripheral speed, thus insuring complete control. The 
governor stem passes through the camshaft and operates 
on the throttle. Ignition is jump spark, current being 
supplied by dry batteries and slow speed magneto, gear 
driven. The cooler is of the enclosed type, arranged with 
interchangeable cooling sections, and holds 12 gallons of 
water. Figure 57 shows one of the sections removed. 
Oil can be used in place of water in freezing weather. 



FIGURE 57. 

The fan is 24 inches in diameter, with ball bearings 
running in oil. It is driven by a belt from the governor 
case through a set of bevel gears. Controlling levers, 
including steering wheel, speed changing wheel, clutch, 
spark and throttle levers are arranged on one column 




TYPES OF TRACTORS 


1G3 


within a radius of 12 in., thus providing a complete con¬ 
trolling system. The speed of the tractor can be changed 
from forward to reverse as quick and easy as a steam 
tractor. 

The throttle lever operates directly on the governor, 
changing the speed from 300 to 700 r.p.m. and making 
it possible for the engine to receive a full explosion at 
its minimum speed. By this system the tractor can be 
driven very slowly, at the same time exerting a maximum 
tension on the draw bar. 

The front wheels are 38 ins. in diameter with 8-in. face. 

The drive wheels are 60 ins. in diameter with 18-in. 
rim. Spokes are flat steel bars firmly riveted to the rim 
and steel hub. Cone or clea.t lugs are provided. 

The master gear is of steel, 38 ins. in diameter with 
4-in. face, provided with teeth with 2-in. pitch. 

These engines are also provided with a friction clutch 
pulley to operate belt driven machinery. 


THE SKIBO FARM TRACTOR. 

Figure 58 shows a view of the Skibo farm tractor, a 
machine designed more especially to meet the require¬ 
ments of those farmers who are operating small farms, 
say from 75 to 160 acres. 

The frame of this machine is constructed of heavy 
channel steel securely riveted together and thoroughly 
braced with the motor hung low on the frame. This 
brings the center of gravity close to the ground, making 
the machine very stable and affording no tendency to 
racking the frame which is sometimes the case where 
the center of gravity is high from the ground. 

The drive wheels are 61 ins. in diameter and 20 ins. 



166 


TRACTION FARMING 


wide. The power to drive the machine is delivered from 
the rim of the bull gear to the rim of the drive wheel. 

The front axle is centrally pivoted to the main frame 
to permit tilting of the axle in going over uneven ground. 



FIGURE 58. 
Skibo Farm Tractor. 


The steering device is the automobile type, quick in ac¬ 
tion and absolutely positive, requiring very little atten¬ 
tion from the operator. The transmission is entirely 
by spur gears, excepting the bevel gears comprising the 
differentials; all gears are of large proportion and ample 
strength, the main drive gear being 31 ins. in diameter 
with 4-in. face. 

Figure 59 shows the engine used on this tractor, and 
it will be noted by the illustration that it is of the hori¬ 
zontal opposed type. The cylinders are 7^2 by 7^2, with 
heads cast separately. The crankshaft is 3^ ins. in diam¬ 
eter, worked out from solid steel. This shaft runs 500 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


167 


r.p.m. and at this speed its inventors state the engine de¬ 
livers from 38 to 40 brake h.p. The tractor is sold as an 
18-25 h.p. machine, showing a power on the draw bar of 
18 h.p. and on the belt pulley of 25 h.p. 

All running parts of the motor ^re provided with posi¬ 
tive means of oiling and in addition to this, the splash 
crankcase system of oiling is employed. Ignition is high 
tension jump spark produced by magneto; dry cells be¬ 
ing used for starting. The motor is water cooled, the 



FIGURE 59. 


water passing through a closed radiator which is cooled 
by air, a fan in front of the radiator causing a strong 
current of air to pass through the radiator. 

This machine has two speeds forward, namely 2 l / 2 and 
3 miles and reverse. It has a capacity of drawing 4 to 
6 stubble plows, depending on the soil and lay of the 
land, and will pull 4 seven-inch binders or 5 six-inch 
binders. Its manufacturers state it will run a 32-in. 
cylinder threshing machine with feeder, wind stacker 
and weigher. It weighs 10,000 lbs. 

An engine of this type is extremely useful in plowing, 





168 


TRACTION FARMING 


pulling binder, and heavily loaded wagons. It is pro¬ 
vided with a friction clutch belt pulley attached direct 
to crankshaft which enables the machine to be used for 
operating binders, shredder, corn sheller and in fact for 
all general purposes on the farm. 


HUBER TRACTION ENGINE. 

Figure 60 shows a view of the farm tractor manufac¬ 
tured by the Huber Manufacturing Company of Marion, 
Ohio. This farm tractor has a double opposed engine 



with cylinders 5^ by 6, rated as 9 nominal, 12 tractive 
or 20 brake h.p. All proportions are ample for heavy 
duty continuous service, bearings oiled by mechanical 
oiler and splash system. Under U. S. Government in¬ 
spection, it showed a fuel consumption of ^ of a pint 
of gasoline per hour, for each horse power produced, 
for a continuous run at maximum load for six hours. 




























































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


169 


The transmission is the selective type sliding, similar 
to the automobile, except in the ample size to provide 
the proper strength. It has two speeds forward and one 
reverse, the gears being shifted from the driver’s seat 
by a single lever. These gears are cut steel, run in an 
oil bath, protected from the dirt by suitable housing. 

The power is transmitted from the engine to the 
countershaft by a roller chain and cut steel sprockets, 
the chain having an ultimate strength of 17,000 lbs. 
From the countershaft to the drive wheels a Jeffery Steel 
Thimble Roller Chain with safe working strain of 6,300 
lbs. at 200 ft. per minute and ultimate strength of 48,000 
lbs. 

The mounting is on 6-in. channels, lOJ^ lbs. to the, 
foot, hot riveted together. The length of the frame is 
10 ft. 6 ins., width 24 ins. The rear drivers are 54 ins. 
diameter and 16-in. face, made of J^-in. boiler steel, 
the front wheels are 40 ins. diameter and 6-in. face, made 
of 5/16-in. boiler steel and with a wrought iron band in 
the center to prevent slipping. The rear wheels are 
provided with cleats and extra picks or spurs for plow¬ 
ing. The hubs have a 20-in. bearing. The rear axle is 
a 3-in. interchangeable and has babbitted bearings se¬ 
cured to the frame. The roller shaft, running the ex¬ 
treme width of the traction from out to out of drive 
wheels is 79 ins. Each tractor is provided with a plow 
hitch. 

The control is from the driver’s seat, which is in front. 
The guide is by hand steer wheel with worm and cable. 
Foot levers operate the clutch and brake, and a single 
hand lever shifts all gears. The engine is controlled by 
the governor, but the spark and throttle levers are ac¬ 
cessible to the driver from his seat. The low speed, 


170 


TRACTION FARMING 


which is the plowing speed, is 1.85 miles per hour; the 
high speed, for ordinary hauling on the roads is 2.80 
miles per hour. These speeds being produced at the nor¬ 
mal engine speed. Each engine is equipped with fric¬ 
tion clutch, pulley for belt power and dry cells and coils 
for ignition. 

The total weight of the engine with 15 gallons gaso¬ 
line and water supply, with man on seat, is about 5,800 
lbs. 

The makers guarantee 2,500 lbs. draw bar pull and 12 
tractive h.p. Actual test shows 2,750 lbs. draw bar pull 
under continuous load with engine running G35 r.p.m. 


AULTMAN AND TAYLOR GASOLINE TRACTOR. 

This engine, shown in Figure 61, is a four-cylinder, 
four-cycle type. The cylinders are cast in pairs, ar¬ 
ranged parallel, and in horizontal position. The cylin¬ 
der-heads are also cast in pairs, being secured to the 
cylinders by heavy stud bolts and provided with a cop¬ 
per gasket. The valves are seated in the heads, and a 
water jacket surrounds cylinders, combustion chambers 
and valves. 

The pistons are cast from the same grade of iron as 
that used in the cylinders, and they are provided with 
four snap rings made from a special mixture of hard 
gray iron. 

The motor base or crankcase is fitted with an oil- 
tight, dust-proof cap, which, when removed, permits the 
cranks, camshaft, connecting rods, and pistons to be 
withdrawn from the crankcase without disturbing any 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


171 


other parts or adjustments. The lower bearings of the 
crank and camshafts are cast as a part of the crankcase, 
thus insuring perfect alignment. The lower parts of 
the bearings are babbitted and the upper parts, which 
take the thrust and receive the greatest amount of wear, 
are made of a special grade of bronze. These are in¬ 
terchangeable and new ones can be put in in a very few 



FIGURE 61. 

“Aultman-Taylor” Gasoline Engine. 


minutes, in case it is necessary to do so. The main 
bearings are adjustable from the outside of the case and 
are so easily accessible that they may be adjusted while 
the motor is running. 

The crank-pin bearings are babbitted with genuine bab¬ 
bitt and the caps are secured to the connecting rod by 
bolts which are provided with slotted nuts, permitting 


















172 


TRACTION FARMING 


very fine adjustment and absolutely preventing the nuts 
from coming loose. 

Connecting rods have adjustable bearings on the pis¬ 
ton pin which is provided with a bronze bushing which 
is very easily removed and replaced by a new one if 
necessary. 

The valves are all mechanically opened by plungers 
which are provided with hardened rollers, operated by 
pins made of special steel, hardened and ground. The 
cam rollers work on hardened pins which reduce the 
friction and wear to a minimum. 

The speed is automatically controlled by a centrifugal 
governor which is driven by gears enclosed in the 
crankcase and absolutely protected from dust. The 
governor acts directly upon the throttle valve and the 
speed may be varied from one to five hundred revolu¬ 
tions by simply moving a lever which is set near the 
steering wheel. Battery and magneto systems are both 
provided for ignition. 

The battery consists of fifteen primary battery cells, 
hermetically sealed in water-tight cases so that there is 
no possibility of their becoming damaged by moisture, 
and will last for an indefinite time when the battery is 
used for starting only. 

The carbureter is of the floating ball type; has no 
spring air valves; no spring adjustments and in fact 
requires no adjusting whatever except to change the 
amount of gasoline fed to the motor. 

Fuel is carried in a large reservoir placed under the 
platform and below the engine, and is pumped into a 
small reservoir above the motor by an automatic pump. 

The magneto is of the low tension type and of the 
simplest construction, having no brushes or commuta- 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


173 


tors to adjust. It is positively driven by cut gears direct 
from the camshaft of the motor and is provided with 
water- and dust-proof cover. 

Wires are carried from the magneto to the spark plug 
through a metal tube, which prevents them from be¬ 
coming damaged or in any way short circuited. This 
obviates one of the old annoying troubles of a gas 
engine. The spark plugs are set in the head and are 
easily removed. Any type of standard spark plug can 
be used. 

Lubrication is effected by means of a multiple force 
feed oil pump which forces a definite amount of oil 
through an individual tube to each bearing and also to 
each cylinder. 

The crank pins are positively oiled by centrifugal oil 
rings fastened on the crank. These rings receive their 
oil from the force feed pump and force it directly to 
the crank pin bearings. This system insures continual 
feeding of fresh oil to the cylinder and all the bearings. 

The method of transmission is by means of spur-gears 
of extra wide face and simple in construction. The 
power is taken from the motor by a steel pinion, 43 / 2 -in. 
face, 1 ^ 2 -in. pitch, on the crankshaft, which pinion drives 
the differential gear through steel intermediate gear, both 
having 43 / 2 -in. face and l^-in. pitch. 

The bull pinions are all steel 53 / 2 -in. face, and 2 %- 
in. pitch. The bull gears are semi-steel, provided with 
hubs and spokes to insure centering. They have 
heavy adjustable torsion rods by which they are securely 
fastened to the rims of the drivers and take up all of 
the driving strain. 

The reverse pinions are of cast steel, with extra wide 
faces. The gearing and all the transmission bearings 


174 


TRACTION FARMING 


are oiled by a multiple force feed pump, which drives 
a definite amount of oil to each bearing and is posi¬ 
tively driven from the countershaft so that it operates 
only when the engine is running. 

The forward and reverse movement of the engine, 
also the belt pulley, are controlled by two clutches which 
are operated by one lever. 

The backing up gear and the belt-pulley are operated 
by the same clutch which is of the internal expanding 
type and clutches directly on the under side of the pulley 
rim. But one lever is used for both forward and back¬ 
ward movement. 

The engine runs at 500 revolutions per minute. Speed 
on road at 500 revolutions per minute is 2.2 miles per 
hour. 


tvmh . ttfwnc 
NO aoos to 
co«e iwf 



N*Cf if 

»' r ‘< wt ON W AJ 


FIGURE 62. 

Rumcly Oil Traction Engine. 

RUMELY OIL ENGINE. 

Figure 62 shows the Rumely oil traction engine, in 
which kerosene is used as fuel. It is claimed that kero- 








TYPES CF TRACTORS 


175 


sene is the most concentrated fuel obtainable at any 
price, and also that it is the most universally distributed. 

The Rumely oil engine is a four-cycle engine with 
two cylinders of ten-inch diameter and twelve-inch 
stroke, Figure 63. Cylinders are cast, machined and 
finished singly, and then solidly bolted on the crankcase 



FIGURE 63. 


in a horizontal twin construction. The cylinders and 
cylinder heads are surrounded on all sides with jacket 
for cooling. The heads can be easily removed by 
unscrewing ten bolts without disconnecting any other 
parts. 



FIGURE 64. 


The piston, Figure 64, is equipped with five self-ex¬ 
panding rings. The connecting rod is of drop-forged 
steel construction. Crank-pin bearings are made in halves 
and lined with shells of special metal. 

The crankcase is covered with a sheet steel lid that 




176 


TRACTION FARMING 


shuts out all dust and dirt. This cover can easily be re¬ 
moved at any time by unscrewing the bolts that hold it 
in place. It is constructed with this cover on top instead 
of on the side or end, which permits of easy access to 
any working parts in the crankcase. 

To further facilitate the accessibility to working parts 
in the crankcase, a secondary cover is provided which 
can be removed easily. This opening is large enough to 
allow the operator to reach any point within the crank¬ 
case. 

All cams are key-seated upon the camshaft with double 
key-seats, which absolutely prevent any possibility of 
slipping or alteration in the timing of.the engine. The 
exhaust and intake valves are mechanically operated. The 
valves are constructed with steel stem, nickel-steel heads. 

Valve cages are oil-cooled, thereby eliminating all 
possibility of the valves overheating or warping. The 
valves themselves can be removed by unscrewing the 
connection. The engine is provided with a set of relief 
cams by which the compression can be relieved—this 
greatly facilitates the starting of the engine. 

Lubrication is effected by a combination of mechanical 
and splash methods. Six feed pipes enter the crankcase, 
one to each bearing, and two feeders force oil into the 
cylinders. The crankcase contains two gallons of lubri¬ 
cating oil, and is so arranged that any surplus of oil can 
be drawn off at any time. 

Hard oil or grease cups are placed on every moving 
part that requires constant oiling. To be sure that the 
entire engine is properly lubricated, it is only necessary 
to see that the oil cups are properly filled and turned 
down regularly when the engine is working. 

The ignition system is of the make-and-break type, 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


177 


operating with a low tension current. A double supply 
of current is provided by a set of dry battery cells and 
a magneto which is operated by gearing, see Figure 65. 

In order to secure the best results in an oil-burning 
internal combustion engine, water must be used. The 
quantity of water must vary with the load. If too much 
is introduced, the cylinder is flooded and the engine is 
killed; if too little, the desired effect is not obtained. At 
the moment of the explosion the water is evaporated and 
disassociated into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen. 



FIGURE 65. 


This free or nascent oxygen attaches itself to any free 
carbon and exerts a scouring effect in the cylinder. As 
the piston stroke advances and the temperature drops, 
hydrogen again turns to water and liberates its heat, 
thus keeping up the pressure. This and certain other 
results are obtained by the use of water, providing the 
admission of water is as carefully proportioned as that 
of fuel. The Higgins carbureter is used and this device 
controls not only the intake of oil, but legulates also the 
quantity and proportion of water in accordance with the 
needs of the engine, 



178 


TRACTION FARMING 


' ✓ 

The valves are in cages, therefore easily removable, 
with one or more mathematically proportioned air 
passages, and is connected with the governor in such a 
manner that it is absolutely positive in its workings. 


FAIRBANKS-MORSE OIL TRACTORS. 

This tractor is built in two sizes. The smaller size, 
a light, medium power tractor, will, it is claimed, do 
the same amount of work continuously in plowing or 
hauling on level ground as 15 heavy horses will do; 
and will give to a belt, driving a thresher or other 
machine, 25 horse power. The larger size tractor is 
rated at from 30 to 60 horse power. It has two cylinders, 
10 J/2-inch bore by 12-inch stroke. Its normal speed is 
375 r. p. m., and it will develop at this speed 70 brake 
horse power. 

This engine is fitted with throttling governor, air 
heaters and water reservoir for the use of oil fuels, and 
it will successfully handle gasoline, naptha, kerosene, 
low grade distillate and similar oils, which gives it a wide 
range of fuels. Speed regulation is very close, giving 
practically the same speed at full and no load, and there 
is no undue variation or speeding when load is suddenly 
thrown off. 

The two cylinders are cast together. See Figure 66. 
This is in line with the most recent automobile practice. 
It permits cylinders to be brought close together, reduc¬ 
ing length of crankshaft, gives an easy water circulation 
through jackets, simplifies all pipe connections, and when 
bolted to the frame, makes a construction so strong and 
rigid as to insure against springing or breakage. 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


179 


The combustion chamber has no pockets, all valves 
closing flush with inside of cylinder. This construction 
gives the least cold surface exposed to the hot gases, 
therefore less heat goes away in the jackets and more 
goes into power. 



Crank 

shaft 

bearing’s 

with die 

cast 

babbitt 

liners— 


Cam 

shaft 

borings. 


Cylinder 
bolted to 
main 
frame. 


FIGURE 66. 

Main Engine Frame, with Cylinders in Place. 


The pistons come out without removing any shafts or 
cylinder heads. This point of easy access to all wearing 
parts, adjustments for wear, and easy replacement of 
worn parts, is of the utmost importance. 

The valves are in cages, therefore easily removable, 
and the valve operating mechanism is very simple. 

Figure G7 shows two views of the cylinder head cast¬ 
ing, in which the valves operate, and it is self-explana- 








180 


TRACTION FARMING 


tory. Figure G8 shows the piston, piston rings, piston 
pin and connecting rod of one engine. Figure 69 is a 
view of the crankshaft as it appears in the rough and 
after finishing. It is cut from a solid billet of steel and 
is 5 inches in diameter in the bearings and 5^ inches in 



Fuel intake 


All valve seats entirely 
surrounded by water 


Exhaust 


Exhaust 



Valves 

mechanically 

operated 


Cleanout plate 


Cylinder Heads, Showing Valve Cages Removed and Also in Place. 


the crank pins. The two cranks are set in line, no bear¬ 
ing being used between the cranks. 

The fuel tank holds 80 gallons. 

The belt pulley is located on the right hand side of 
the engine and the clutch is operated by a lever from the 
footboard, which makes it unnecessary for the engineer 
to get down on the ground to disengage the clutch to 
stop the driven machine. 

The transmission is of the shifting gear type with 
hardened steel gears. The transmission gears are 





TYPES OF TRACTORS 


181 


enclosed in a practically dust proof case, this being con¬ 
nected with enclosed crankcase and better providing for 




FIGURE 68. 

Piston, Piston Rings, Piston Pin and Connecting Rod. 


air displacement of the pistons. Power is transmitted 
to the truck through the clutch on the left hand side of 
the engine, which is operated by combined clutch and 
shifting lever on the footboard. This lever has an inter¬ 
locking device, arranged so that it is impossible for the 
operator to shift the gears before the clutch is disengaged, 
or to engage the clutch until the gears are completely 
in mesh. It is also impossible to get two sets of gearing 
in mesh at one time and prevents any possibility of strip¬ 
ping gears by applying the load on the corners of the 
teeth. 

The drive wheels are 78 inches in diameter, with a 
30-inch face. These give a very large bearing on the 
ground which is particularly desirable when using the 
engine for cultivating or seeding on plowed ground. 
The front wheels are 48 ins. in diameter, 14 in.-face. 
The wheel base is long and the engine is easy to guide. 
The drive wheels are covered by a metal housing which 









182 


TRACTION FARMING 



protects the operator and the working parts of the engine 
from dust and mud. 

This engine gives a drawbar pull on low gear of 9,000 
lbs., which will haul from eight to twelve 14-inch plows, 
according to the character of the plowing. The hitch is 


FIGURE 69. 

Crank Shaft, Rough and Finished. 












FIGURE 70. 

Fairbanks-Morse 30-60 Oil Tractor. 






184 


TRACTION FARMING 


placed about 18 inches above the ground and consists 
of a heavy bar extending approximately to the middle 
of the hull wheels on each side, thus providing for hitch¬ 
ing the load most satisfactorily. 

A 9 feed force feed oiler divided into two compart¬ 
ments is sued, One compartment being used to force the 
oil to the cylinders and engine bearings and the other 
compartment being used to force the oil to the gearing 
of the transmission. 

The cooling water is kept in circulation by a positively 
driven centrifugal pump. From the engine it passes to 
a closed radiator which effectively cools the water with¬ 
out loss. This radiator holds about 100 gallons. The 
transmission operating mechanism has but one lever with 
which two speeds forward and one reverse speed are 
obtained. The transmission clutch is operated by a 
separate lever. 

The crank bearings, cams, and open end of each cylin¬ 
der are protected from dirt by a tight-fitting steel cover. 

The engineer’s platform is roomy, which gives the 
operator a clea * view of the road ahead. All operating 
devices are within easy reach. 

The bearings which are equipped with grease cups are 
those also which are liable to receive some dust. Lubri¬ 
cating oil is so thin that dust, sand, etc., can work into 
an exposed bearing. On the other hand, the grease 
forms a film all over the bearing, and gradually is forced 
out at the end by the pressure of the incoming grease. 

The ignition is jump spark, the equipment being a gear 
driven magneto, two cylinder timer with platinum con¬ 
tact points, two unit spark coil with master vibrator, and 
extra large mica insulated spark plugs. 

This engine has two speeds forward and one reverse, 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


185 



FIGURE 71. 

15-25 H.P. Oil Tractor Pulling- Two 7-ft. Disc Spaders, One 8-ft. 
Wheel Disc and One 3-Section Harrow, Taking the Place 
of 15 Draft Horses and 2 Drivers. 











186 


TRACTION FARMING 


The forward speeds are 124 an< ^ miles per hour, 
and the reverse 1^4 miles per hour. 



The engine will operate equally well on kerosene, low 
grade distillate oils and gasoline. More than the full 


FIGURE 72. 

15-25 Oil Tractor Threshing in Washington. 








TYPES OF TRACTORS 


187 



rated power may be developed on any of these fuels. 
The fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder together 


<v 

tc 

d 

« 

G 

W 

to 

G 

•H 

-M 

<D 

H 

. G 
eo cd 

ag 

P3 J3 
P £ 


with a spray of water, the proportion of water to oil at 
full load, being about equal. 












188 


TRACTION FARMING 


Plowing .—In stubble plowing from ten to twelve 14- 
in. bottoms can usually be handled with this tractor, 
plowing to a depth of 5 ins. or 7 ins. With ten 14-in. 
bottoms about 24 acres in 10 hours can be plowed. 

If intended for breaking only, and in tough soil, eight 
14-in. moldboard breaking plows will be all that should 
be expected, but for lighter breaking and for stubble as 
many as twelve may frequently be used. The depth 
plowed for breaking is usually about 4 inches, some pre¬ 
ferring to plow deeper and others not so deep. On 
account of the contour of the land affecting the number 
of plows that can be pulled, considerable advantage will 
be realized from the two speeds used on this outfit, the 
slowest speed being used in plowing in the hardest spots 
or on hills, while the higher speed is used on level ground 
and wherever the conditions are more favorable. With 
eight 14-in. plows about 20 acres can be plowed in 10 
hours. Where the soil and other conditions will permit 
the use of a greater number of plows, a correspondingly 
larger amount of work can be done. 


AVERY GAS AND OIL TRACTORS. 

Figure 74 shows a view of the Avery tractor, which 
is built in three sizes by the Avery Manufacturing Com¬ 
pany, Peoria, Ills. Simplicity and compactness appear 
to be the predominating features in the design of this 
farm tractor, and the claim is made by the builders that 
the motor is unusually economical in fuel consumption, 
as shown by numerous tests and in actual practice. 

Either gasoline or kerosene can be used for fuel. The 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


189 



Avery 


FIGURE 74. 

Gas and Oil Tractor. 







190 


TRACTION FARMING 


weight of the tractor shown in Figure 74 is about 7,500 
pounds. 

Motor .—The motor, two views of which are given in 
Figures 75 and 76, is of the opposed type. This style 
of motor permits of an extremely strong construction 
and is very simple. It requires no balancing counter¬ 
weights on the crankshaft which are a constant source 
of trouble and repair expense. It balances perfectly and 
prevents vibration. 

The motor runs at a low speed—500 revolutions per 
minute—which means that there is little wear on the 
parts. It is also placed lengthwise of the frame which 
makes it possible to drive the gearing direct from the 
crankshaft without the use of bevel pinions, which waste 
power and cause unnecessary repair expense. The sizes 
of the motors used on Avery tractors are as follows: 


• 


Bore. 

Stroke. 

Rated Horse Power. 

Style 

Inches. 

Inches. 

12 Traction—25 Brake 

Two Cylinder 



H.P. Tractor .... 

Opposed. 

m/ 2 

7 

20 Traction—35 Brake 

Two Cylinder 



H.P. Tractor .... 

Opposed. 

m 

8 

40 Traction—80 Brake 

Four Cylinder 



H.P. Tractor .... 

Opposed. 


8 


Figure 77 shows one of the connecting rods and boxing. 
The construction of the crankshaft is plainly illustrated 
in Figure 78. The crankshaft pinion meshes directly 
into the compensating gear when the motor is running 
ahead, thus dispensing with all idle gears in mesh and 
running, either when driving a belt or drawing a load. 
Figure 79 is a side view of the motor and gearing in 
the position for traveling ahead. Figure 80 shows the 
intermediate gear in different positions. 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 191 

For belt work the sliding frame is pushed forward 
until the crankshaft pinion disengages from the com- 



FIGURE 75. 

Right Hand Side of the 20-35 H.P. Tractor Motor. 



FIGURE 76. 

Left Hand Side of 20-35 H.P. Tractor Motor. 


pensating gear. The intermediate gear remains disen¬ 
gaged in the position shown by the dotted lines. See 





















192 


TRACTION FARMING 


Figure 80. In order to back up, the sliding frame is 
placed in the same position as for belt work and the in¬ 
termediate gear, which is mounted on an eccentric, is 



FIGURE 77. 

Connecting- Rod and Boxing on 20-35 H.P. Tractor. 


drawn back to engage both the crankshaft pinion and 
the compensating gear. (See Figure 80.) 

Figure 81 will serve to further illustrate the gear 



FIGURE 78. 

Crankshaft on 20-35 H.P. Tractor. 


connections and principal working parts of this tractor. 
Neither cooling fan nor water pump are used on the 
engine; the exhaust, it is claimed, draws sufficient cool 







TYPES OF TRACTORS 


193 
















194 


TRACTION FARMING 



air past the tubes for cooling purposes. The entire power 
plant is mounted on a sliding frame, to which reference 
has already been made. 

Governor .—The speed of the Avery tractor is con¬ 
trolled by the Pickering governor. A 2-in. governor 
is used on the 12 and 20 h.p. sizes, and a 2^-in. on 


figure so. 

Phantom View of Intermediate Gear, Showing Various Positions. 

the 40 h. p. The governor is placed in the manifold 
between the carbureter and the cylinders. If differs 
only from steam in one respect that the mixture passes 
through the governor in the opposite direction. This 
governor gives a steady motion to the motor with very 
little variation in speed. The valves are located in the 







types of tractors 


195 



FIGURE 81. 

Top View of the Avery 20 H.P. “Light-Weight” Tractor, Show 
ing All of the Principal Working Parts—the Motor 
and All of the Gearing. 





























196 


TRACTION FARMING 


head, thus doing away with all valve pockets and cham¬ 
bers. The valve gear and cams are housed in one 
casing which is located directly over the crankshaft and 
can be removed quickly. The cylinder heads are re¬ 
movable, the cooling water, however, does not pass direct 
from the cylinder jacket to the water head through the 
packing, but through a U-pipe, and no water can there¬ 
fore get into the inside of the cylinder. 

The radiator is round and made of vertical tubes, 
thus permitting the air to strike the radiator, no matter 
from what direction it is blowing. 

Lubrication .—A positive oiling system operated by a 
gear pump is employed. The surplus supply of oil is 
contained in an oil reservoir and is pumped up and 
forced on the bearings under pressure, which insures its 
going to the spot and doing its work. 

The engine is equipped with a dual ignition system, 
both batteries and magneto. 

Clutch .—Figure 82 shows a view of the combined 
clutch and belt wheel brake, which serves whether the 
tractor is traveling forward or backward or driving in 
the belt. This clutch has three clutch arms, on the 
ends of which are three large wood shoes. It has a 
good grip on the belt wheel and yet will release easily. 
The belt wheel does not travel with the motor unless 
I he clutch is engaged. This makes it possible to put 
the belt on the flywheel and back into it by slipping the 
clutch much more easily than it is possible when the 
belt wheel is fast to the shaft and revolves at the motor 
speed. Furthermore, the same lever which throws the 
clutch in, when drawn back, engages a brake on the 
outer surface of the belt wheel, by which it can be 
stopped almost instantly for engaging the gears or should 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


197 


any accident happen to the separator, sheller, saw, or 
other machinery which is being driven. 

Shafting .—The crankshaft is made from forged steel. 
The countershaft is cold rolled steel, and revolves in a 
solid babbitted bearing. Both the countershaft and rear 



FIGURE 82. 

Clutch and Belt Wheel Brake. 


axle boxes have large oil wells in the center for oiling 
the bearings. 

Fuel Tank .—Each tractor is equipped with a square 
steel fuel tank located on the left hand side of the frame 
directly above the rear axle. The total fuel capacity 
of the tank is as follows: 12 h. p., 32 gals.; 20 h. p., 
42 gals.; 40 h. p., 67 gals. 

Various Equipments .—A plow hitch is furnished reg¬ 
ularly with Avery tractors. It is located directly under 
the rear axle so that, in turning, the draft of the plows 
does not interfere with the steering. Each tractor is 






198 


TRACTION FARMING 


also equipped with an automatic coupler for coupling 
on wagons or other machinery. The platform is steel 
and mounted on springs which take the jar of traveling 
off the operator. A strong foot brake is provided which 
operates a steel band around the compensating gear 
shell. A cab is furnished regularly with these tractors 
as shown in illustrations. A gravity gear oiler is fur- 
nishec regularly for oiling the gearing and shafting. 


TWIN CITY GAS TRACTOR. 

The Twin City gas tractor, built by the Minneapolis 
Steel and Machinery Co., is manufactured in two sizes, 
25 and 40 h.p. Figure 83 shows a view of the larger 
size. A side sectional elevation is given in Figure 84, 
and a cross section of one of the cylinders, showing the 
piston, valves, connecting rod and spur gear is shown 
in Figure 85. The motor is of the four-cylinder, four¬ 
cycle type; bore, 7^ inches, stroke, 9 inches. Each 
cylinder is cast separately with head, cylinder body and 
valve chambers all in one solid piece. This method of 
construction dispenses with all studs, bolts and packed 
joints, thus removing a source of trouble. Figure 86 
is a sectional view of a cylinder casting, and shows the 
one piece construction. The water jacket enclosing the 
cylinder is also shown in the cut. 

Valves .—The valves are nickel steel forgings, ground 
to their seats, and they are also well surrounded with 
w ater jackets. The\ may be easily removed by unscrew¬ 
ing the caps over the valve chambers and lifting the 
valves out of their seats. The valves are interchange¬ 
able. * 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


199 


Governor .—The governor is of the fly ball type, and 
is housed in an oil-tight dust-proof brass ease. It is 
geared directly from the camshaft and controls the speed 
of the engine within a few revolutions from full load 
to no load by regulating the fuel supply. The governor 
and controlling device are shown to the left of Fig¬ 
ure 84. 

Camshaft .—The camshaft positively operates both the 
intake and exhaust valves through a single tappet, the 



FIGURE 83. 

The Twin City “40.” 


whole being completely housed in the crankshaft case 
directly under the valve chambers. The cams are of a 
special grade of tool steel, hardened and ground. They 
are keyed and pinned on the camshaft. The cam gears 
are cut from solid steel forgings and are hardened. The 
boxes in which the camshaft revolves are so designed 




200 


TRACTION FARMING 


that after removing the cover plates they may be taken 
out or adjusted without disturbing any other part of the 
motor. 

Ignition .—The ignition system is provided with a high 
tension magneto of standard make positively driven 
direct from the camshaft gear, which 'insures perfect 
timing and the distribution of current to all the cylinders. 



FIGURE 84. 

Twin City “40” Motor, Side Sectional Elevation. 


Lubrication .—The cylinders and crank bearings of the 
motor are lubricated by a multiple force feed system, 
the oil being pumped by a positively driven force pump 
through individual pipes directly to the cylinders and 
bearings. Gears and all other parts are lubricated from 
the main oil reservoir, the oil being carried to the bear- 





















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


201 


ings and gears by a separate pipe provided with a special 
lubricating valve. 

Connecting Rod .—The connecting rod is a nickel steel 
forging with, an interchangeable hard bronze bushing at 



FIGURE 85. 

Twin City “40” Motor, End Sectional Elevation. 


the piston end, and with Parson’s interchangeable bush¬ 
ings in the crank bearing. The cap is secured to the 
rod by nickel steel bolts provided with slotted nuts and 
cotter pins, which prevent the nuts from coming loose. 










202 


TRACTION FARMING 


Pistons .—'The surface of pistons, piston rings and pins 
are finished with a water grinding machine which will 
finish these parts to one-thousandth of an inch. A piston 
can easily be removed through the side of the crank¬ 
case without disturbing any other part of the motor. 
Figure 87 shows the construction of the connecting rod, 
piston and cylinder. 





FIGURE 86. 
Section of Cylinder. 


Crankshaft .—The crankshaft, Figure 88, is a single 
forging of high grade steel. It has five bearings, made 
of Parson’s white bronze bearing metal. Each bearing 
is oiled by an individual oil pipe leading from the force- 
feed oil pump and the crank pins are also lubricated 
through individual pipes from the same oil pump. 

The flange of the crankshaft is forged solid with the 
crankshaft and to this flange the flywheel is bolted. 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


203 


Figure 89 shows a view of the crankshaft as it appears 
when looking up from beneath the crankcase. 

Transmission .—The main transmission operated by an 
expanding clutch in the flywheel is assembled complete 
in a single steel casting as shown in the illustration, 
Figure 90, and is then bolted to the top of the frame 
back of the motor and directly over the rear axle. 



FIGURE 87. 

Connecting Rod, Piston and Cylinder. 


Belt Wheel .—The belt wheel is operated from a pinion 
on the front end of the motor, entirely independent of 
the gearing which propels the tractor. By this arrange- 
ment the main transmission is relieved of all wear when 
the belt pulley only is running. The forward gears 
are thrown completely out of mesh when not in use. A 








204 


TRACTION FARMING 




brake operates on the pulley to stop its spinning as soon 
as the clutch is thrown out. 

Bevel Gear .—The bevel gears are cut from spherical 


FIGURE 88. 

The Crankshaft. 

sections of high grade steel, see Figure 91. This system 
of cutting gears produces the most efficient tractor trans¬ 
mission known, and effectually answers all arguments 


FIGURE 89. 

against the efficiency or durability of bevel gears. The 

main pinion of this tractor is geared directly into the 
differential, thus dispensing with an intermediate gear 

(Figure 92). The centers of the respective shafts are 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


205 


arranged in the three points of a triangle, thus making 
the shortest possible distance to carry the power, besides 
being a compact and rigid construction. 



FIGURE 90. 

Showing 1 Main Transmission Complete from the Clutch in the 
Engine Flywheel to the Bull Pinions. 












206 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 91. 

Gears Cut in Spherical Sections. 


Master Gear Adjuster .—The rear axle is equipped with 
an adjusting device, (See Figure 93), by means of 
which the axle bearing may be moved to take up any 
wear which may occur in the master gear or pinion and 



FIGURE 92. 

Showing System of Gearing. 














TYPES OF TRACTORS 


207 



Showing Method of Adjusting Rear Axle. 



FIGURE 94. 

Rear Wheel Showing the Bull 12-inch Rear "Wheel Extension 
Gear and Tension Bars Which Equipped with Cleats. 

Carry All the Driving Force 
to the Wheel Rim. 























208 


TRACTION FARMING 


also renders possible the use of another size of pinion 

/ 

in case it is desired to change the speed of the tractor. 

Wheels .—The rear wheels on the 40 h. p. tractor are 
84 inches in diameter and have a 24-inch face. An 
extension is furnished which will widen the face to 
36 inches. Figure 94 shows the rear wheel and also the 
extension to be attached when necessary. 

Drawbar .—The drawbar is attached to one of the for¬ 
ward cross braces of the frame by a powerful elastic 
spring suspension. To the drawbar is fastened the 
detachable plow hitch. 

Cooling System .—The cooling system is of the forced 
circulation type, using an enclosed radiator from which 
there is no water consumed through direct evaporation. 
Consequently one filling of the radiator will last indefi¬ 
nitely, barring leaks. Circulation is maintained by a 
centrifugal pump driven from the crankshaft. A large 
fan operated from the same source draws the cooling 
air through the 185 tubes in the radiator. 


SAWYER-MASSEY GASOLINE TRACTOR. 

A view of this tractor is shown in Figure 95. It is 
built by the Sawyer-Massey Co., of Hamilton, Canada. 
It is manufactured in two sizes, 25 and 45 h.p., and the 
general dimensions are as follows: height, 124 ins.; 
width, 108 ins.; length, 190 ins.; wheel base, 125 ins.; 
cross shaft, 3}£ ms.; compensating shaft, 3J4 ins.; inter¬ 
mediate gear shaft, 3% ins.; pump shaft, 1*4 ins. 

Motor .—The motor (See Figure 96) is of the four- 
cylinder, four-cycle vertical type, water cooled. The 
four cylinders give a frequency of impulse which is 
absent from the single and two-cylinder engines, thus 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


209 


giving a continuous flow of power to the gearing and 
lessening strains and torsional stresses. 

Crankcase .—The enclosed crankcase is dust-proof and 
provided with hand-hole openings for inspection. The 
lower half of the crankcase constitutes an oil pan. 



FIGURE 95. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor—Right View 25-45 Horse Power. 


Access to the connecting rod bearings is through re¬ 
movable plates in the bottom of the crankcase. The 
lubricating system is so arranged that the oil in the 
crankcase remains at a constant level. 

Crankshaft .—The crankshaft, Figure 97, is drop 
forged from high carbon steel and is provided with 
interchangeable die cast babbitted bearings. These bear¬ 
ings, of which there are five, are ins. in diameter, 
one on each side of each crank, the total bearing surface 














210 


TRACTION FARMING 


being 20}4 ins. The crank bearings are 2^ ins. in di¬ 
ameter and 3^4 ins. long. 

Pistons .—The pistons (See Figure 98) are 9 ins. in 
length and are fitted with four expanding rings with 



FIGURE 96. 

Showing Intake Side with Carbureter and Magneto. 


butt joints. Each ring is fastened to the piston with 
a pin in order to prevent its turning. An added feature 
is the provision of an oil groove just below the bottom 
ring which scrapes off the extra oil and allows it to 
the piston pin bearings. Two extra oil grooves are pro- 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


211 


vided at the bottom end of the piston to help keep the 
oil from getting into the combustion chamber. The pis¬ 
ton is carefully machined and ground to exact measure¬ 
ments. 



figure 97. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Crankshaft. 

Piston Pins .—The piston pins are of generous size, 
being 1^4 ins. in diameter, made of steel, case hard¬ 
ened and ground. They are provided with bronze bush¬ 
ings in the piston, which can be renewed when required. 



FIGURE 98. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Piston, Also Showing Piston, 
Rings, Pin, Connecting Rod and Cap with Die Cast 
Babbitted Bearings Before Assembling. 


Clutch .—The clutch (See Figure 99) is of the expand¬ 
ing shoe type, is self-locking, and is provided with fric¬ 
tion shoes of hard maple which can be easily replaced. 



















212 


TRACTION FARMING 


Bevel Gear Case .—This is cast in two pieces and has 
a hand-hole for inspection purposes, covered with a 
plate, which can be quickly removed. The bevels are 



FIGURE 99. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Clutch Complete with Shaft 

and Bevel Pinion. 


free on the pulley shaft. The pinion runs between the 
two bevels, and to reverse, a dog clutch is used which 
operates between the two bevels into one of the other 





TYPES OF TRACTORS 


213 


gears. The shafts of the gear case are provided with 
four double row annular ball bearings, which take both 
radial and thrust loads. These bearings prevent any side 
motion, and are very much superior to the babbitted 
bearings, as they ensure that the bevel gears will always 
remain correctly aligned. The bevel gears are made of 
steel with machine cut teeth. The case is dust proof, 
and the gears run in a bath of oil which ensures mini¬ 
mum wear on the parts and helps to transmit the power 
with the least possible friction loss. 

Speed .—This tractor has two speeds, one of 2 miles 
and the other of 3)4 miles when the motor is running 
600 revolutions per minute. 

Gears .—The train gears are placed inside the frame 
and have 4-in. face and 1%-in. pitch. The low speed 
pinion is cast steel. The intermediate gear has a bronze 
bushing 10 ins. long. The traction wheel gears are 5-in. 
face and 23 / 2 -in. pitch. All pinions are cast steel. The 
bull pinions are supported by a frame bearing close up 
to the gear. 

Compensating Gear .—The compensating gear is of the 
four pinion type, lubricated by a compression grease cup 
at the end of the shaft. The rim is separate and is 
bolted to the center casting that carries the bevel pin¬ 
ions. In case the gear should need replacement through 
the breaking of a tooth, all that is necessary is the re¬ 
placement of the rim. 

Cylinders .—The cylinders, Figure 100, are made of 
the best grade of grey iron, cast separately with remov¬ 
able heads. Any cylinder can be removed without in¬ 
terfering with others. The water jacket completely sur¬ 
rounds the cylinder and is provided with a removable 
cover for cleaning. The cylinder heads are separate and 


214 


TRACTION FARMING 


are secured to the cylinders by heavy studs, four to each 
head. They contain the valves and are easily removed 
for the purpose of grinding valves or cleaning the com¬ 
bustion chamber. 

Valves .—The valves are water-jacketed. They are of 
the poppet type, made of nickel steel, ground and fitted 



FIGURE 100 . 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Cylinder, Showing Right and Left 
Sides with Part Cut Away to Give View of Auxiliary Exhaust 
Ports. Also Cylinder Heads, Valve Springs, 

Cap and Nut. 

after being heat-treated. The valves are mechanically 
operated by overhead rockers and push rods. 

Cams and Camshaft .—The camshaft is 1 % ins. in 
diameter and is made in one piece with five individual 
bronze bearings. It is so constructed that it may be 
removed by sliding endways from the crankcase. The 
cams are all hardened and ground and secured to the 
shaft by a key and two taper pins. Machine cut spur 
gears of steel are used for camshaft gearing. 

Ignition .—The ignition system consists of a Remy high 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


215 


tension magneto in conjunction with a six-cell dry bat¬ 
tery for starting. The magneto is covered with a dust 
and water proof cover, thus preventing short circuits. 

Carbureter .—The carbureter is of the floating ball 
type, having no spring adjustments to make, and only 
one regulation to adjust the amount of gasoline. It is 
automatic in its control of the mixture for light and 
heavy loads. 

Governor .—The governor is of the centrifugal ball 
type, which operates the carbureter and regulates the 
speed of the engine both on the air and the fuel supply. 
It is positive in its action. The speed can be varied 300 
to 600 revolutions per minute, and if the load is sud¬ 
denly released the governor takes care of the engine 
instantly by at once cutting down the supply of fuel and 
air, and thus prevents racing. 

Connecting Rods .—These are of I beam type, 18 inches 
between centres with bearings on crankshaft 2^4 X3}4. 
All connecting rod bearings are die cast and are adjust¬ 
able. The lower half of each connecting rod bearing has 
an oil dasher which splashes the oil on the bearings re¬ 
quiring it. Figure 98 shows the construction of the 
connecting rod and its bearings. 

Lubrication .—The lubrication of all bearings is ac¬ 
complished by means of a gear oil pump which is driven 
from the camshaft by a noiseless roller chain and draws 
its oil from a tank through a filter and pumps it into 
a 10-unit sight feed oiler, which has oil tubes running to 
crankshaft bearings, magneto gears, and cylinders. 

Cooling System .—The cooling system consumes very 
little water. There are 252 Y%- in. seamless brass tubes, 
32 ins. long, used in the form of a radiator and a large 
centrifugal pump circulates the water around the cylin- 


216 


TRACTION FARMING 


ders and through the radiator. It takes but 30 gallons 
of water to fill the whole system. The radiator is cooled 
with a 30-in. fan at its back, driven by a belt from pump 
shaft. 


MINNEAPOLIS FARM MOTOR. 

This motor, Figure 101, is of the four-cylinder, 
four-cycle type, and the cylinders, instead of being in 
a vertical position, are located parallel with the frame 



FIGURE 101. 

Left Hand View—The Minneapolis 40 H.P., 4-Cylinder (Hori¬ 
zontal) Farm Motor. 


and lie horizontal. The cylinders are 7% inches in 
diameter by 9-inch stroke and are cast in pairs, as will 
be seen by a glance at Figure 102. Cylinders and com- 







TYPES OF TRACTORS 


217 


bustion chamber are cast together, thus dispensing with 
packed joints between cylinders and heads. The whole 
is secured to the motor base or crankcase by large heavy 
bolts, and the motor base is in turn securely bolted to 
the frame. 

Frame .—The frame is stiff and rigid, being constructed 
of steel I beams reinforced by angle steel, thus giving 



FIGURE 102 . 

View of 40 H.P. Motor. 


maximum strength with minimum weight. A skeleton 
view of the frame, steel gears and shafting is shown in 
Figure 103. 

Valves .—The valves and valve stems are of nickel 
steel in one piece, turned and ground to size. Water 
space surrounds the valves, keeping them at a uniform 
temperature, thus reducing the chance of warping or 
breaking. Cast plates located in the heads of com¬ 
bustion chambers can be removed to gain access to valves 
for grinding or cleaning. 




218 


TRACTION FARMING 


Pistons .—The pistons are cast from the same quality 
‘ of grey iron as are the cylinders. Each piston is fitted 
with four cast rings, carefully machined, ground and 
fitted. 

Camshaft and Cams .—One camshaft with cams oper¬ 
ates the intake and exhaust valves. The cams, rollers 
and pins are of ample dimensions. 

Connecting Rods .—The connecting rods are made from 
forged steel and are of large dimensions. The bearing 



FIGURE 103. 

Frame, Steel Gears and Shafting, Minneapolis 40 H.P. Motor. 


at the cross head end is an inserted brass bushing. The 
crank pin bearing is made of white metal, 2> l / 2 by 3^4 
ins. The caps at crank end are skimmed for taking up 
wear. They are secured by four bolts, double nutted 
and pinned. 

Gears .—All transmission and traction gears are steel, 
of large dimensions to insure great strength and dura¬ 
bility. 

In designing and constructing farm motors for the 
heavy work required of them in plowing, hauling, etc., 





TYPES OF TRACTORS 


219 


the traction gears and parts are most important features. 
There are two speeds forward and one reverse, con¬ 
trolled by a single lever. The gear oiler works auto¬ 
matically and regulates the amount of oil to be used. 



FIGURE 104. 

Sectional View of Minneapolis Universal Double-Opposed Motor. 
One Cylinder is Shown as if Cut Through the Center Length¬ 
wise, the Better to Illustrate the Piston, Valve, 
Waterspace, Etc. 


Ignition .—Double system jump spark. Two spark 
plugs in each cylinder, wired to a Remy high tension 
magneto, gear driven, and to a set of dry cell batteries 
for starting and emergencies. 

Lubrication .—Multiple feed oil pump, chain driven, 
located in plain view of operator, enabling him at all 
times to see and regulate the amount of oil mechanically 
forced through individual tubes to motor bearings, 
cylinders and other parts. Splash system in crankcase 
is also used, thus giving two distinct systems of lubri¬ 
cation. 

Cooling System .—Positive circulation by means of a 
large gear driven pump. Radiator holds 50 gallons and 


















































220 


TRACTION FARMING 


consists of a top and bottom water tank, connected by 
a series of long brass tubes, cooled by a large fan. 

The builders of the 40 h. p. motor, the Minneapolis 
Threshing Machine Co., also build a smaller size, 20 
h. p., which they call the “universal double opposed” 
motor. A good idea of the construction and action of 
this motor may be obtained by an examination of Figure 
104. It will be seen that there are two cylinders, lying 
horizontal and facing each other, and both apply power 
to the same crankshaft. The details of construction are 
similar to those of the 40 h. p. motor, with the exception 
that the 20 h. p. motor has but two cylinders, located on 
opposite sides of the crankshaft, while the larger size 
motor has four cylinders lying parallel with each other 
and all on the same side of the shaft. 

CASE GASOLINE TRACTORS. 

Figure 105 shows a view of the 40 h. p. tractor man¬ 
ufactured by the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Com¬ 
pany, Racine, Wis. The motor is of the two-cylinder 
opposed type, as shown in Figure 106, which is a plan 
view of the mounting of this tractor. The following 
brief description will cover the principal features of the 
machine: 

Motor. —Two-cylinder horizontal opposed; size of cyl¬ 
inders, 7'24-in. bore x 8-in. stroke. 

Rating .—Brake horse power, 40; draw-bar horse 
power, 20. Normal engine speed 450 revolutions per 
minute. 

Road Speed .—Two forward speeds, 2 and 2^4 miles 
per hour. The first speed is used for plowing, and the 
second for hauling or other road work. Reverse speed 
is the same as the plowing speed. 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


221 


Rear Wheels .—Diameter 66 in., face 20 in.; thickness 
of tire 9/16 in.; 8-in. extension tires furnished as extras. 

Front Wheels .—Diameter 38 in., face 8 in. 

Transmission .—Drive is direct from crankshaft to the 
differential gear at both forward speeds. Differential 
shaft is geared to both the main road wheels. No idler 



FIGURE 105. 

Case 40 Gas Tractor. 

gear is in mesh except when reversing. This is also true 
when engine is used for belt work. 

Gears .—All gears are of semi- or cast steel. The mas¬ 
ter gears and pinions have 4D>-in. face and 2-in. circular 
pitch. Differential gear is spring mounted. 

Shafting .—The rear axle is 3 15/16-in. diameter, run¬ 
ning in a cannon bearing extending the entire width of 
the tractor. Differential shaft is 2 15/16-in. diameter, 
supported by three bearings, two of which are placed 
each side of the main differential gear. 


















222 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 106. 


Mounting of Motor Transmission 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


223 


Ignition. —Is of the high tension type. Batteries are 
used for starting only. A high grade magneto is pro¬ 
vided, driven direct from the engine. 

Governor. —This is of the fly ball type connected direct 
to governor valve. Regulation is on the throttle principle. 
A valve, hand controlled from operating platform, is 
provided so that engine speed can be reduced when nec¬ 
essary to run engine idle. 

Lubrication. —Engine is provided with a geared pump 
taking the oil from bottom of crankcase and supplying 
it to all the engine main bearings. 

Weight. —Total weight approximating 13,000 lbs. 
Weight on rear wheels, 9,000 lbs. Weight on front 
wheels, 4,000 lbs. Capacity of fuel tank, 42 gallons. 

The Cylinder. —Cylinder heads, valve seats and valve 
stems are thoroughly water jacketed. The valves are 
made with nickel steel heads fused on to carbon steel 
stems, and accurately ground to size. 

Oiling System. —Force feed lubrication is used to oil 
the different parts of the engine. The pump is positively 
driven. It is of the gear type, and is located so that oil 
flows into it from the lower part of the crankcase. From 
the discharge side of pump the oil is fed, so that it 
thoroughly lubricates running parts of motor. 

Thermo-Syphon Cooling System. —The radiator used 
in this cooling system is of the closed type, and is so con¬ 
structed that it can be readily cleaned from deposits 
which may take place from the water. 

The main driving pinions (See Figure 106) are placed 
close to the bearings, doing away with any overhang, and 
it will be seen that the drive pinions on the crankshaft 
are supported not only by the engine bearing, but are 
provided with an extra outboard bearing. By this con- 



224 TRACTION FARMING 

struction the overhanging strain on engine main bearing 
due to belt pull is completely eliminated. 

The differential shaft has three bearings, two placed 
close to the main differential gear, which prevents undue 
deflection of shaft and adds bearing surface at the point 
of greatest strain. 

Brake .—A substantial brake is provided, acting directly 
upon the differential gear. This has a lock which is 
used very advantageously when engine is used on the 


FIGURE 107. 

Inside Crankcase and Flywheel. 







TYPES OF TRACTORS 


225 


belt, doing away with the necessity of blocking. Figure 
106 also shows the location of lever for operating clutch 
and the position of the hand wheel for steering. 

The brake shoes have very large bearing surfaces and 
are lined with asbestos brake lining, a material which has 
high frictional resistance and will not wear or burn out 
readily when the clutch is allowed to slip. Connected 
to same lever which operates clutch is a powerful brake 
which is applied directly to the outside of belt pulley. 



FIGURE 108. 

Plan View of 60 H.P. Motor. 








226 


TRACTION FARMING 


This can be used to stop immediately the rotation of 
pulley when used for belt work, or when transmission 
gears are in mesh. It is of sufficient power to hold the 
tractor on the steepest incline. It will be seen from the 
illustration (Figure 107) that the inside of the crankcase 
is made accessible simply by removing a cover plate, to 
which no operating parts are attached. 

The J. I. Case Co. also manufacture a 60 h.p. gas 
and oil tractor designed for heavy work. Two cylinders 
are used on this size motor also, but instead of being 
opposed, as on the 40 h. p. tractor, the cylinders are 



FIGURE 109. 

Left Side of 60 H.P. Motor. 


both on the same side of the crankshaft, as will be seen 
by an inspection of Figure 108, which shows a plan view 
of the motor with the crankcase cover removed. The 
crank pins are set 3G0 degrees apart, so that a power 
impulse is received every revolution, which is not the 
case with two-cylinder engines of the same type having 
their crank pins 180 degrees apart. The speed of this 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


227 


motor is 350 r. p. m. Figure 109 is a side view show¬ 
ing the design of the case, also the oil and fuel pumps 
and various other equipments. 

Crankshaft .—Figure 110 shows the crankshaft, also 
the flywheel, clutch and pinion for operating transmis¬ 
sion. The belt pulley is also shown. This pulley is 
operated by a separate clutch, entirely independent of 
that used for transmission. 

It is possible with this arrangement when operating 
on the belt to tighten the same without in any way inter¬ 
fering with the load. To do this all that is necessary is 



1 


rMR 


mmm 


m , 


:' ■ •' 




m 


■ 




FIGURE 110. 

Crankshaft 60 H.P. Motor. 

to place the gears in reverse position and tighten up on 
transmission clutch. The rotation of belt pulley is such 
that a crossed belt is used for operating threshing 
machines. 

Oiling System.—A positive driven force-feed lubrica¬ 
tor, so located that the feeds can be observed from the 




228 


TRACTION FARMING 


engineer’s platform, supplies the necessary oil for lubri¬ 
cating all the principal engine bearings. 

Main and crank-pin bearings are of the removable 
shell type. They are lined with high grade babbitt, 
which when worn can be quickly replaced without it 
being necessary to dismantle any part of engine. 

All parts, such as ignitor plugs and valve cages, are 
provided with ground iron to iron seats, which makes 
the cooling of these parts more efficient, and also does 
away with troublesome gaskets. 

Ignition .—For furnishing current for starting, dry bat¬ 
teries are supplied, and a magneto after engine has been 
brought up to speed. The ignition system is so arranged 
that the time at which the spark takes place can be 
changed while the engine is in operation, and the magneto 
is protected from the weather by a sheet of metal cover. 

Transmission .—Next in importance to the engine is 
the transmission. It is of the utmost importance that 
the transmission shafts be held in perfect alignment. If 
this is not done, transmission gears will show wear, and 
breakages in a very short time. The cannon bearing for 
the rear axle is machined and fits into a saddle pad, 
which is a part of transmission housing. 

Careful attention has been given to the selection of 
right material for the various parts composing this 
tractor. 

The crankshaft is made of .35 carbon steel which is 
forged from a single billet and accurately ground to 
size, both in the bearings and crank pins. 

The connecting rods are drop forged of I section and 
carefully heat treated. 

The cylinders and pistons are made of a special 
mixture of close-grained cast iron. 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


229 


All gears used on the transmission are semi-steel. 

Carbureter .—Its construction is such that it will use 
either gasoline, naphtha, distillate or kerosene without 
change. 

Cooling System .—No fans are used, the necessary 
draught being created by utilizing the exhaust pressure. 

THE CATERPILLAR TRACTOR. 

The distinctive feature of this traction engine, a view 
of which is shown in Fig. Ill, is its chain type of wheel, 
which is really not a wheel at all, but an endless track 
that the engine first lays down, then rolls over and picks 
up again. This gives the engine a roadbed of solid steel 
to travel on and not one of yielding soil or shifting sand. 

Each track is 13 inches wide and has about 50 inches 



FIGURE 111. 

The Caterpillar Tractor. 

of its length in contact with the ground. Altogether, 
that makes 1,300 inches of track bearing surface. The 
weight of the tractor is 10,940 pounds. Seven-eighths of 
the weight, 9,572 pounds, is on the track. That makes a 
pressure under the track of only 7 pounds per square 
inch, which is less than under the sole of the average 
man’s shoe. 












230 


TRACTION FARMING 


The caterpillar tractor is built by the Holt Manufac¬ 
turing Company of Stockton, California and appears to 
be well adapted to travel on all kinds of roads and espe¬ 
cially rough roads filled with ruts and bumps or roads 
where the soil is soft and yielding. 

Type of Motor .—The motor is of the 4-cylinder, 
4-cycle, valve-in-head type. The cyclinders are cast sep¬ 
arately and the cylinder heads are removable. Large 
water jackets surround both cylinders and heads, the 
water circulating close to the valves. 

The regular speed of the motor is 650 revolutions per 
minute. It burns No. 1 engine distillate, which is much 
cheaper than gasoline, with better results than most mo¬ 
tors give with gasoline. 

Valves .—The valves are made by threading special 
mild-steel stems into cast-iron heads and electrically 
welding the two together. Two hardened check nuts 
permit adjustments. 

The cams are designed to give an easy valve-lift, avoid¬ 
ing danger of breaking valve stems and insuring long life 
for the valve springs and all moving parts. 

Crank Shaft and Connecting Rod-s .—The crank shaft 
is a drop forging of .40-carbon open-hearth machine 
steel. It is 2 T 5 g inches in diameter at all bearing points. 
There are five main bearings and four connecting-rod 
bearings, all of which are accurately ground to size. The 
crank is perfectly balanced before being placed in the 
motor. 

The connecting rods are drop forged of special steel 
and accurately machined to size. Each rod is bushed 
with manganese bronze at the wrist pin. 

Ignition .—The ignition system is a dual system of the 
jump-spark type. For starting, the current is supplied 
by dry cells. When the motor is running, it operates a 
Splitdorf magneto. Both batteries and magneto operate 
through a waterproof Splitdorf coil. 


PART II. 




PART II. 


CHAPTER I. 

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS IN THE FARM HOME. 

By S. E. Brown. 

One of the causes of dissatisfaction with farm life is 
the lack of conveniences in the home. It must be ad¬ 
mitted that when compared with the conveniences found 
in. the average city dwelling, the farm home even of the 
well-to-do farmer shows badly. Labor saving devices 
have been purchased for farm use to a very great extent. 
The money invested for conveniences for the home, how¬ 
ever, is comparatively small. Fortunately, this state of 
affairs is changing, and while a few years ago one would 
possibly have found a sewing machine, washing machine, 
bread mixer and perhaps a few other articles whose use 
lightened the labors of the housewife, it is now not un¬ 
common to find in addition to the above mentioned arti¬ 
cles, water systems, heating systems, lighting plants, re¬ 
frigerators, vacuum cleaners, fireless cookers, etc. 

There can scarcely be any dissention to the statement 
that of all the above mentioned items, the water system 


233 



234 


TRACTION FARMING 


stands first in its importance to family comfort and wel¬ 
fare. The farmhouse with a pressure water system has 
all the advantages and sanitary conveniences of the city 
home. A modern bathroom, kitchen, sink, hot water 
tank, running water in the laundry, dairy and barn are 
comforts and conveniences of far greater value to the 
farmer than the small cost they represent. 

One great virtue of a pressure water system is that it 
makes a modern bathroom possible. From a hygienic 
standpoint the bathroom is an absolute necessity. The 
conditions under which the average family on the farm 
lived until recently, would not be tolerated by a city 
family. Of course, one can have baths regardless of 
whether there is a w r ater pressure system or not. But the 
plain fact is that bathing is neglected when it means the 
carrying of water from well or cistern, heating it on the 
stove, and securing, after all this effort, a rather unsatis¬ 
factory bath. When a man comes in from the field after 
a hard day’s toil, his body reeking with perspiration, 
dusty, tired, exhausted, nothing is more refreshing and 
conducive to a good night’s rest than a pleasant, agree¬ 
able bath. It will be taken, too, when the only effort 
required is to turn on the water. 

When the element of convenience is considered it is 
surprising that the farmer has so long permitted himself— 
and especially the women of his household—to worry 
along with the endless toil of water pumping and carry¬ 
ing. It is the wife and daughters that usually suffer 
most. Not only must water be carried for ordinary do¬ 
mestic purposes, but on wash days, when the work should 
be lightened, it is increased by the labor necessary to 
carry tubful after tubful from cistern or weli, frequently 
in inclement weather when the risks from exposure are 


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


235 


great. Contrast this with running water, both hot and 
cold, always on tap. The sum that would be invested 
in a new implement to lessen the work on the farm should 
surely not be considered exorbitant to expend for equip¬ 
ment that will put an end to all this needless drudgery. 

Water systems as now offered for private installation 
give ample opportunity for one to secure apparatus that 
is dependable and that can be secured for a reasonable 
outlay. One of the most popular types marketed is known 
as the Fresh Water System, so called because with it 
water is delivered “fresh” from the well to the faucet. 
This system will always have preference where con¬ 
venience and flexibility are given first consideration. It 
is, in fact, the most modern method of water delivery un¬ 
der pressure and gives service fully equal 10 , and in most 
cases surpassing, that available in the city. For instance, 
it is not at all infrequent to find these systems supplying 
water from well or spring for drinking purposes; from a 
cistern for domestic use; and from one or more additional 
wells for stock and general purposes, and all operated 
by only one power plant. This Fresh Water System is 
available when the water does not have to be elevated 
more than 100 feet and where the water is clean, free 
from sand, grit and other impurities. 

These plants consist of an air compressor which may 
be driven by a small gasoline engine, or electric motor, 
an air-tight steel tank for air storage and an auto-pneu¬ 
matic pump for each source of water supply. These 
pumps consist of two small metallic chambers which are 
submerged in the water. When a faucet is opened they 
automatically fill and discharge due to the compressed 
air pressure from the storage tank, thus giving a contin¬ 
uous flow of water. In addition to the strong feature of 


236 


TRACTION FARMING 



V em S4 


Fresh Water System Operated by Gasoline Engine or Electric 

Motor. 







































WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


237 


water being delivered fresh and cool an advantage of this 
system is that since compressed air can be piped most 
any distance to the auto-pneumatic pump in the well 
without any appreciable loss, the power plant, and air 
storage tank can be located wherever convenient, as in 
barn, garage or dry basement. This makes it an easy 
matter, where an engine is used, to arrange to have it 
drive other machinery when not in use for pumping water. 

For the benefit of our readers who may be interested 
to know something of the engineering problem in con¬ 
nection with water systems we give below a table show¬ 
ing the amount of water, in gallons, that can be drawn 
from faucets by auto-pneumatic pumps at various work¬ 
ing pressure by the expansion of compressed air from a 
1,000-gallon air tank. To make this table of greater 
value an estimate of the amount of water used for various 
purposes on the farm is also given. 


PUMPING CAPACITY OF AIR TANKS. 


Working 

Pressure Total Pressure in Tank at Start, 

on Pump 

Gauge. 40 lbs. 50 lbs. 60 lbs. 70 lbs. 80 lbs. 90 lbs. 100 lbs. 


25 lbs.... 375. 

30 lbs_221. 

35 lbs_ 102. 

40 lbs. 

45 lbs. 

50 lbs. 

55 lbs. 

60 lbs. 

65 lbs. 


595. 

833. 

1075. 

442. 

663. 

884. 

306. 

510. 

714. 

187. 

374. 

561. 

85. 

255. 

425. 

• • • • 

153. 

306. 

• • • • 

68. 

204. 



119. 



51. 


1310. 

1548. 

1786. 

1105. 

1326. 

1548. 

924. 

1123. 

1327. 

748. 

936. 

1123. 

596. 

• 765. 

936. 

460. 

612. 

765. 

330. 

476. 

612. 

237. 

375. 

476. 

153. 

255. 

357. 








238 


TRACTION FARMING 


For air tanks of other than 1,000 gallons capacity, di¬ 
vide the above figures by 1,000 (move decimal point three 
places to the left) and multiply result by number of gal¬ 
lons the tank holds. 

It takes .43 lbs. pressure per square inch for every foot 
that water is forced upward in a standpipe or elevated 
tank. For instance, if water is forced 20 ft. high, 20 X 
.43 = 8.6 lbs. pressure per square inch is secured; 40 
ft. high gives 17.2 lbs. pressure; 60 ft. high, 25.8 lbs. 
pressure. 

Reversing the foregoing proposition, every pound 
pressure per square inch in a service pipe elevates water 
2.31 ft. high. If there are 15 lbs. pressure per square 
inch in the service pipe, the water will be elevated 2.31 
X 15 =: 34.6 ft. high; 25 lbs. pressure elevates water 
57.7 ft. high; 35 lbs., 80.8 ft. high, etc. 

Amount of Water Required for Stock and Other Pur¬ 
poses .—Horses drink 5 to 10 gallons per day. Cattle 
drink 7 to 12 gallons per day. Hogs drink 2 to 2]/ 2 
gallons per day. Sheep drink 1 to 2 gallons per day. 
With 40 to 50 lbs. pressure per square inch, an ordinary 
24-in. garden hose nozzle requires about 6 gallons per 
minute, when throwing a solid stream, or about 4 gal¬ 
lons when spraying. It requires about 8 gallons to 
sprinkle 100 sq. ft. of lawn; 16 to 20 gallons will soak 
it thoroughly. It requires about 1J4 gallons to fill an 
ordinary lavatory; 30 gallons to fill the average bath tub. 
It requires about 7 to 10 gallons to flush a closet. 300 
gallons is a fair estimate of the amount of water required 
by the average sized family in 24 hours. 

Only power driven outfits should be considered where 
any considerable amount of water is to be used. In this 
connection it may be stated that the amount of water 


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


239 


used for general purposes will be greatly increased when 
the water supply system is put in service. This does not 
imply that a family will be extravagant in the use of 
water merely because it is easily obtained. It means that 
all too small an amount is used where the family depends 
on other methods. In addition to a plentiful use of 
water for domestic purposes and for proper stock water¬ 
ing, it is obvious that much will, if available, be used 
for other needs. Thus, the garden will not be allowed 
to perish in case of drought, nor will lawns and flower 
beds be permitted to die down in the summer. 

Where one desires to draw water from a single well, 

/ 

or from a well or cistern, the pneumatic tank method is 
frequently used. In this case water is pumped into an 
air-tight tank, the compressive force on the air serving 
to force the water to the taps. 

Regardless of the system selected, a hand operated 
outfit should not be considered unless the water to be 
used is confined to purely domestic purposes. A consid¬ 
erable amount of physical energy is required to get a 
supply of water stored under a pressure of from 60 to 
70 lbs. As fire protection is one of the great features 
in favor of water pressure systems, it will readily be seen 
that low pressure outfits are not advisable. Where water 
from cistern for bathroom, sink, etc., is all that is to be 
pumped, a hand outfit may be found satisfactory. It is 
not at all fitted for service where stock watering, lawn 
sprinkling, carriage washing and similar purposes are 
to be served. The plan of a new house should invariably 
incorporate a water system even though- the installation 
of the system is not to be made immediately. In the same 
way in the selection of a kitchen range or furnace it 
should be seen to that the firebox has pipes for water 


240 TRACTION FARMING 

heating, or at least so arranged that these may easily be 
put in place. Heating from the range is in a measure 



more satisfactory than from a furnace, as the range is 
more likely to be used the year round. Plans for the 
barn should also be made with a view to having water 











WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


241 


brought into the building, as inclement weather makes 
caring for stock a hardship. This is especially true dur¬ 
ing the severe weather of winter. With a water pres¬ 
sure system it becomes an easy matter to fit up a tank 
in all buildings where animals are kept so that stock 
can be watered without exposure. 

For farm homes, water can be delivered under pres¬ 
sure by three different methods : First, the elevated tank; 
second, the pneumatic tank; and third, the auto-pneumatic 
pump. The elevated tank system depends for its working 
upon a tank placed on a substructure high enough to 
give sufficient pressure to force water to the highest story 
of the building. 

Pneumatic Tank System .—A pneumatic tank system 
consists of a force pump, an air-tight steel tank, neces¬ 
sary pipe, fittings and valves, and power for operating 
the pump. The system may be a small one, operated by 
hand or windmill, or it may consist of a large pump ope¬ 
rated by a powerful engine, with two or more tanks of 
large capacity. 

Water is pumped into the bottom of the tank near one 
end. See Figure 2. To the bottom of the tank near the 
other end is connected the discharge main from which 
branches may be extended to the kitchen, bathroom, 
laundry, etc. 

Why Air Is Required .—If water is pumped into the 
tank until a pressure gauge registers 25 lbs., water can 
be forced 60 ft. above the tank. If a faucet 20 ft. above 
the tank is opened, water is discharged until the pres¬ 
sure falls to 8.6 lbs., when it stops. The tank does not 
have pressure enough to deliver the remaining water 20 
ft. high. It is also found that when air is compressed 
in the same tank with water, the water gradually absorbs 


242 


TRACTION FARMING 


the air, and the air requires constant renewal. Both trou¬ 
bles are overcome by compressing excess air in with the 
water until the pressure gauge registers 25 lbs., when 
the tank is half full of water. This excess air pressure 
is secured in a number of ways: (1) An air intake valve 
may be placed in the suction pipe, and controlled by hand; 
(2) a combined air and water pump may be used; (3) 
when power is available, use an air compressor, which 
may be operated whenever air is required. The “work¬ 
ing capacity” of a tank is about two-thirds its total ca¬ 
pacity. 



FIGURE 3. 

Bathroom. 

The tank usually used has a capacity of 420 gallons, 
which, allowing one-third for air space, will deliver about 
280 gallons of water at one pumping. Other sizes of 
tanks can be used. 

For operating the pump by power, a small gasoline 
engine may be placed as shown in Figure 2. the power 

















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


243 


being transmitted from engine to pump by means of a 
belt. Fairbanks-Morse Co. supply an engine of this type 
which they designate as “Jack Junior,” 1 h.p. The pump 
should be set within 18 or 20 ft. of low water level. The 
steel tank for a pneumatic tank system should be made 
of boiler steel, riveted same as a steam boiler, and tested 
before shipment to a pressure of 125 lbs. per square inch. 
They are furnished with one head dished outwards and 
the other head dished inwards. A manhole for cleaning 
purposes should be fitted in one end. Figure 2 shows the 
tank in a horizontal position. It may be placed in a 
vertical position if more convenient. In the vertical tank 
the inlet pipe is connected to one side of the tank near 
the bottom end, while the discharge main connects to 
the opposite side near bottom end. 

Auto-Pneumatic Pump .—The auto-pneumatic pump can 
be used in wells, springs or lakes, where the water is 
free from sand and mud, and where the water does not 
have to be lifted more than 100 ft., measured from the 
- base of the pump to the highest point of delivery, or 
where the working pressure does not exceed 65 lbs. 

This method makes it possible to deliver water under 
pressure without water storage, thus rendering it pos¬ 
sible to have a constant supply of fresh water direct from 
the source of supply. 

The system consists of one or more auto-pneumatic 
pumps, air-tight steel tank, and air compressor, and an 
engine or electric motor for driving the compressor. No 
water tank is required, for nothing is stored but com¬ 
pressed air. Compressed air is piped down to the auto¬ 
pneumatic pump in the well, and the water is discharged 
through pipe from the pump to the faucets, cool and 
fresh. 



244 


TRACTION FARMING 


An automatic device makes the compressed air force 
the water out of two pump cylinders alternately, with a 
steady, continuous flow. The pump operates only while 
water is drawn at the faucets. It starts automatically 



FIGURE 4. 
Kitchen. 


when the faucet is opened and stops when it is closed. 

Two or more auto-pneumatic pumps may be installed 
in different wells or cisterns and connected to the same 
air tank. 

An intake well is built near the bank of a lake and an 
intake pipe, protected by a strainer, connects it with the 
lake. At slight cost a filtering box of fine gravel and 
charcoal may be constructed in the lake to protect the 
strainer. In this way the water is purified for drinking 
purposes. The intake well forms a protection for the 
pump, and permits the system to be used throughout the 
winter. 






















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 245 

The power and air compressor may be installed in the 
basement, but is usually erected in a garage, boat house, 
stable or special building. The water and air pipes 
should be laid below frost line. Water jacket of engine 
and compressor should be carefully drained in freezing 
weather. 



FIGURE 5. 
Laundry. 


Valuable Information .—For the following tables, and 
other information, the author desires to acknowledge his 
indebtedness to Fairbanks-Morse Co., of Chicago. 

FRICTION OF WATER IN PIPES. 

Friction loss, in pounds pressure per square inch, for 
each 100 ft. of length in different size clean iron pipe, 
discharging given quantities of water in gallons per 
minute. 









246 


TRACTION FARMING 


Gallons 


per 


Sizes of 

Pipes— 

-Inside 

Diameter. 


Minute. 

V* in. 

1 in. 

1V 4 in. 

iy 2 in 

2 in. 

2>4 in. 

5 

3.3 

0.84 

0.31 

0.12 

0.03 

• • • • 

10 

13.0 

3.16 

1.05 

0.47 

0.12 

0.03 

15 

28.7 

6.98 

2.38 

0.97 

0.27 

0.06 

20 

50.4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

0.42 

0.13 

25 

78.0 

19.0 

6.40 

2.62 

0.67 

0.21 

30 

• • • • 

27.5 

9.15 

3.75 

0.91 

0.30 

35 

• • • • 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

1.26 

0.42 

40 

• • • • 

48.0 

16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

0.51 

45 

• • • • 

• • • • 

20.2 

8.15 

2.01 

0.62 

50 

• • • • 

• • • • 

24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

0.81 

75 

• • • • 

• • • • 

56.1 

22.4 

5.32 

1.80 

100 

• • • • 

• • • • 

• • • • 

39.0 

9.46 

3.20 


PUMPING CAPACITY OF AIR TANKS. 


Approximate number of gallons that can be drawn 
from faucets by auto-pneumatic pumps at various work¬ 
ing pressure by the expansion of compressed air from an 
air tank holding 1,000 gallons, or 135 cu. ft. (42 in. X 
14 ft.) 


W orking 

Pressure Total Pressure in Tank at Start. 


on Pump 


Gauge. 40 lbs. 50 lbs. 60 lbs. 70 lbs. 80 lbs. 90 lbs. 100 lbs. 


25 lbs.... 

357. 

595. 

833. 

30 lbs.... 

221. 

442. 

663. 

35 lbs_ 

102. 

306. 

510. 

40 lbs.... 

• • • • 

187. 

374. 

45 lbs.... 

• • • • 

85. 

255. 

50 lbs.... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

153. 

55 lbs.... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

68. 

60 lbs.... 




65 lbs. 


1075. 

1310. 

1548. 

1786. 

884. 

1105. 

1326. 

1548. 

714. 

924. 

1123. 

1327. 

561. 

748. 

936. 

1123. 

425. 

596. 

765. 

936. 

306. 

460. 

612. 

765. 

204. 

330. 

476. 

612. 

119. 

237. 

375. 

476. 

51. 

153. 

255. 

357. 











WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


247 


For air tanks of other than 1,000 gallons capacity, di¬ 
vide the above figures by 1,000 (move decimal point three 
places to the left) and multiply result by number of gal¬ 
lons the tank holds. 

The size of pipe is designated by the inside diameter. 
The size of valves and fittings is designated by the size 
of pipe for which they are threaded. 

A gallon of water weighs 8j/3 lbs. and contains 231 cu- 
in. A cubic foot of water weighs Q2V 2 lbs. and contains 
1,728 cu. in., or 7^ gallons; 31j/2 gallons of water con¬ 
stitute a barrel. 


TABLE FOR CONVERTING FEET HEAD OF 
WATER INTO PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH. 


Feet 

Pounds 

per 

Feet 

Head 

Square 

Head 

1 

Inch 

.43 

25 

2 

.87 

30 

3 

1.30 

35 

4 

1.73 

40 

5 

2.17 

45 

6 

2.60 

50 

7 

3.03 

55 

8 

3.40 

60 

9 

3.90 

65 

10 

4.33 

70 

15 

6.50 

75 

20 

8.66 

80 


Pounds 


Pounds 

per 

Square 

Inch 

Feet 

Head 

per 

Square 

Inch 

10.83 

85 

36.81 

12.99 

90 

38.98 

15.16 

95 

41.14 

17.32 

100 

43.31 

19.49 

110 

47.64 

21.65 

120 

51.97 

23.82 

130 

56.30 

25.99 

140 

60.63 

28.15 

150 

64.96 

30.32 

160 

69.29 

32.48 

170 

73.63 

34.65 

180 

77.96 


248 


TRACTION FARMING 


TABLE FOR CONVERTING PRESSURE PER 
SQUARE INCH INTO FEET HEAD OF WATER. 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


per 

Feet 

per 

Feet 

per 

Feet 

Square 

Head 

Square 

Head 

Square 

Head 

Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


1 

2.31 

25 

57.72 

85 

196.26 

2 

4.62 

30 

69.27 

90 

207.81 

3 

6.93 

35 

80.81 

95 

219.35 

4 

9.24 

40 

92.36 

100 

230.90 

5 

11.54 

45 

103.90 

110 

253.98 

6 

13.85 

50 

115.45 

120 

277.07 

7 

16.16 

55 

126.99 

125 

288.62 

8 

18.47 

60 

138.54 

130 

300.16 

9 

20.78 

65 

150.08 

140 

323.25 

10 

23.09 

70 

161.63 

150 

346.34 

15 

34.63 

75 

173.17 

160 

369.43 

20 

46.18 

80 

184.72 

170 

392.52 


TIME REQUIRED TO CHARGE AIR TANK. 

To estimate the time in minutes to charge air tank from 
zero to a maximum pressure, divide the total number of 
gallons in tank by 7^ 2 , multiply result by maximum pres¬ 
sure in pounds per square inch, and divide by 15 (one at¬ 
mosphere), and multiply by displacement of compressor 
in cubic feet per minute. Add 20 per cent to 25 per cent 
for loss due to friction, slippage, etc. 


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


249 


TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF GALLONS OF 
WATER DELIVERED AND HEIGHT TO WHICH 
IT WILL BE PROJECTED THROUGH NOZZLES. 


Pounds 

Diameter 

34-Inch 

of 

Nozzles 

34-Inch 

Pressure 

Height 

Gallons 


Height 

Gallons 

at Nozzle 

Jet, Feet 

Per Min. 


Jet, PTet 

Per Min. 

4.3 

9.37 

3.6 


9.7 

14.5 

8.6 

17.5 

5.1 


18.7 

20.6 

13.0 

24.4 

6.4 


27.2 

25.2 

17.3 

30.0 

7.3 


35.0 

29.6 

21.6 

34.0 

8.1 


42.2 

32.5 

26.0 

37.5 

8.9 


48.7 

35.6 

30.3 

39.0 

9.6 


55.0 

38.5 

34.6 

40.0 

10.3 


60.0 

41.2 

39.0 

39.4 

10.9 


65.0 

43.7 

43.3 

37.5 

11.5 


69.0 

46.1 

52.0 

• • • • 

• • • • 


75.0 

50.4 

60.6 

• • • • 

• • • • 


79.0 

54.5 

69.3 

• • • • 

• • • • 


80.0 

58.1 

Pounds 

Diameter 

5/^-Inch 

of 

Nozzles 

Ya -Inch 

Pressure 

Height 

Gallons 


Height 

Gallons 

at Nozzle 

Jet, Feet 

Per Min. 


Jet, Feet 

Per Min. 

4.3 

9.7 

22.7 


9.8 

32,8 

8.6 

19.0 

32.2 


19.2 

46.2 

13.0 

27.7 

39.4 


28.3 

56.8 

17.3 

36.0 

45.5 


37.0 

65.5 

21.6 

44.0 

50.9 


45.0 

73.3 

26.0 

51.0 

55.7 


52,0 

80.3 

30.3 

58.0 

60.1 


60.0 

86.8 

34.6 

64.0 

64.3 


67.0 

92.6 

39.0 

70.0 

68.3 


73.0 

98.4 

43.3 

75.0 

72.0 


79.0 

103.7 

52.0 

84.0 

78.8 


90.0 

113.5 

60.6 

91.0 

85.2 


99.0 

122.4 

69.3 

96.0 

90.8 


106.0 

131.2 


250 


TRACTION FARMING 


General Information .—A cubic foot per second equals 
450 gallons per minute. An acre-foot is 325,829 gallons. 
The term “miner’s inch” of water is more or less indefi¬ 
nite, but is approximately equal to a flow of 11*4 gallons 
per minute. This varies in different states from about 
9 to 13 gallons per minute. 

Diameter multiplied by 3.1416 equals circumference. 
Circumference multiplied by .3183 equals diameter. The 
square of the diameter multiplied bv .7854 equals area. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder required to 
move a given quantity of water per minute, the piston 
travel being 100 ft. per minute, divide the number of 
gallons by four, then extract the square root, and the re¬ 
sult will be the diameter in inches. 

To find the area of required pipe, the volume of water 
being known, multiply the number of cubic feet of water 
by 144 and divide the product by the velocity in feet per 
minute. This gives the area of pipe, from which it is 
easy to determine the diameter. 

To find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to dis¬ 
charge a given volume of water in a given time, multiply 
the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the 
product by the area of the pipe in inches. 

In figuring the actual horse power required to operate 
a pump, the “friction head” should be added to the “actual 
head,” or elevation. This is given in the table on the pre¬ 
ceding page. 

Using the above formulae and including the “friction 
head,” will give the theoretical horse power. To figure 
the actual horse power required it is necessary to know 
the efficiency of the pump. To illustrate: 

If the efficiency of a small pump is 33 1-3 per cent, the 
actual horse power required is three times the theoretical. 


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 251 

If the efficiency is 50 per cent, the actual horse power is 
double the theoretical. 

If the efficiency is 66 2-3 per cent, the actual horse 
power is 1V 2 times the theoretical, etc. 

ACRES IRRIGATED BY VARYING QUANTITIES 

OF WATER. 

Making due allowance for evaporation, it requires 28,- 
320 gallons of water to irrigate one acre one inch deep. 

The following table taken from government tests shows 
the number of acres irrigated in 1, 10 and 24 hours, 
pumping various quantities, and irrigating various depths, 
local conditions, of course, vary and this table has been 
compiled from a comparison of various sections. 


Gallons 


Acres Irrigated in 1 

Hour 


Pumped 

1 In. 

2 In. 

3 In. 

4 In. 

5 In. 

6 In. 

per Min. 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

600 . 

. . 1.3 

.6 

.4 

.3 

.2 

.2 

824 . 

. . 1.8 

.9 

.6 

.4 

.3 

.3 

944 . 

.. 2.1 

1.0 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

988 . 

.. 2.2 

1.1 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

1000 . 

. . 2.2 

1.1 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

1200 . 

.. 2.6 

1.3 

.9 

.6 

.5 

.4 

1500 . 

. . 3.3 

1.6 

1.1 

.8 

.6 

.5 

2000 . 

. . 4.4 

2.2 

1.4 

1.1 

.9 

.7 

Gallons 

Acres Irrigated 

in 10 

Hours 


Pumped 

1 In. 

2 In. 

3 In. 

4 In. 

5 In. 

6 In. 

per Min. 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

600 . 

. . 13.2 

6.6 

4.4 

3.3 

2.6 

2.2 

824 . 

.. 18.2 

9.1 

6.0 

4.5 

3.6 

3.0 

944 . 

.. 20.8 

10.4 

6.9 

5.2 

4.1 

3.4 

988 . 

.. 21.8 

10.9 

7.2 

5.4 

4.3 

3.6 

1000 . 

. . 22.1 

11.0 

7.3 

5.5 

4.4 

3.7 

1200 . 

.. 26.5 

13.2 

8.8 

6.6 

5.3 

4.4 

1500 . 

. . 33.1 

16.5 

11.0 

8.2 

6.6 

5.5 

2000 . 

. . 44.2 

22.1 

14.7 

11.0 

8.8 

7.3 


















252 TRACTION FARMING 

Gallons Acres Irrigated in 24 Hours 

Pumped 1 In. 2 In. 3 In. 4 In. 5 In. 6 In. 

per Min. Deep Deep Deep Deep Deep Deep 

600 . 31.8 15.9 10.6 7.9 6.3 5.3 

824 . 43.7 21.8 14.5 10.9 8.7 7.3 

944 . 50.0 25.0 16.7 12.5 10.0 8.3 

988 . 52.4 26.2 17.4 13.1 10.4 • 8.7 

1000 . 53.0 26.5 17.6 13.2 10.6 8.8 

1200 . 63.6 31.8 21.2 15.9 12.7 10.6 

1500 . 79.5 39.7 26.5 19.9 15.9 13.2 

2000 . 106.0 53.0 35.3 26.5 21.2 17.6 

It requires from 10 ins. to 20 ins. of water per acre to 
produce a crop by irrigation, the average being 16 ins. 
The actual amount required depends upon the crop and 
the season. 










CHAPTER II. 


ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 

The gasoline engine makes it possible for the farmer 
to have his house and adjacent outbuildings equipped 
with electric light at a moderate expense. The safety 
and cleanliness of electric light as compared with kero¬ 
sene lamps, gas, or in fact any other method of lighting, 
is beyond all question. Especially does this apply in the 
case of the barn, the dairy and other necessary outbuild¬ 
ings, where, instead of having to use matches for lighting 
the gas jet or lamp, which at the best supply but a dim 
light covering a limited area, an abundance of clear white 
light is instantly available by the turning of a switch. 

In the house, in addition to the inestimable advantage 
of having the best of light in the evening, electric fans 
may be installed, which will furnish cooling breezes in 
the summer, while electric flat irons, electrically operated 
sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, and even small cook¬ 
ing devices, will greatly lessen household work. 

Gas or oil engines for operating electric lighting sys^ 
terns require to be specially constructed in order to secure 
close speed regulation, which is a paramount requirement 
in this particular service. 

They should be equipped with a throttling governor in¬ 
stead of the ordinary hit-and-miss type, and the fly¬ 
wheels should be extra heavy in order to insure a 
smooth-running engine. The engine can be belted to the 


253 


254 


TRACTION FARMING 


dynamo, or if desired, a direct-connected outfit may be 
obtained in which the dynamo is connected direct to the 
engine shaft. 

A speed regulation within 2 per cent should be obtained 
when running under a constant load. This insures a good 
steady light. 

Figure 6 shows a combined electric light and pumping 
plant, which can be utilized for either purpose. 





FIGURE 6. 

Combined Fresh Water and Electric Light System. 


Figure 7 shows an outfit designed exclusively for elec¬ 
tric lighting. It is called a low voltage, residence light¬ 
ing outfit. This plant consists of a 50-light dynamo, a 
2 h.p. gasoline or kerosene engine, an endless belt for 
running the dynamo, a switchboard, a storage battery and 
50 lights with fixtures and shades, wired and ready for 
hanging. 

The dynamo is a 25-ampere, 32-volt, multi-polar com¬ 
pound wound machine. It is automatic in operation and 

























ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 


255 


maintains a constant voltage, whether one lamp, or all 
are in use, and thus generates just sufficient current to 
supply the demand. It is self-oiling, requires little atten¬ 
tion, and the low voltage at which it operates is prac¬ 
tically harmless. 



FIGURE 7. 

Gasoline Engine. Switchboard. Storage Battery. Dynamo. 

Figure 8 is an enlarged view of the switchboard, show¬ 
ing the various necessary devices accompanying it. By 
closing the main switch, current is sent through the lamp 
circuit, and closing the two battery switches charges the 
storage battery; while by pulling these two switches and 
the dynamo or main switch open, the lamps will receive 
current from the storage battery. The lamps to be used 
with this lighting outfit consume 15 watts each and give 
12 candle power, their average life being 1,000 hrs. each 
when operated at their normal voltage. 

The storage battery furnished with this outfit is in¬ 
tended as an auxiliary to furnish lights when it is not con- 












256 


TRACTION FARMING 


venient to run the engine. When fully charged it will run 
eighteen lights for 2?4 hrs., thirteen lights for 4^4 hrs., 
or nine lights for hrs. For ordinary occasions it will 


Chanrfrqj L*mp§ 



be found large enough to run the lights of a small resi¬ 
dence one or two evenings without running the engine, 
but this is not so efficient as running lights direct from the 
dynamo. 

The normal rating of the battery is the number of lamps 
that it will run for l l / 2 hrs., and it will run a smaller num¬ 
ber for a longer time; for example, one-half as many 
for 15 hrs., or one-fourth as many for 30 hrs.; and when 
completely discharged it takes about 10 hrs. to completely 




ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 


257 


recharge it. Batteries should be selected that have ample 
capacity for the work contemplated, in order that it may 
not be necessary to run the engine at inconvenient times 
to carry the desired number of lights or to recharge thq 
battery. 

If it is desired, stronger lights than 12 candle power 
can be used, but care should be taken not to overload 
the standard 50-light dynamo. For every three 16 can¬ 
dle power Mazda lamps that are put on the circuit, take 
off four of the 12 candle power Mazda lamps; for every 
three 20 candle power Mazda lamps that are put on the 
circuit, take off five of the 12 candle power Mazda lamps. 

The electrical unit of work is a watt. A kilowatt (k.w.) 
is 1,000 watts. 

The watt rating of a machine is the product of the 
volts multiplied by the amperes. 

While the engine will deliver more than 2 h.p., never¬ 
theless the electrical capacity of the plant is limited to the 
capacity of the dynamo. 

The plant will run as many lights, motors or other elec¬ 
trical devices, as desired, provided they are all made for 
30 volts, and the total watt rating of all of them that are 
in circuit at any one time does not exceed 750 watts. 

The 12 candle power Mazda lamps each take 15 watts; 
50 of them, therefore, require 750 watts, which is prac¬ 
tically the capacity of the outfit. 

The 16 candle power Mazda lamps each take 20 watts, 
and the 20 candle power, 25 watts. 

Electric motors, flat irons, curling irons, toasters, fans, 
etc., are all rated in watts and can be obtained for 30 
volts, so it is easy to figure out just how many different 
devices, and what sizes may be operated simultaneously 
by the current supplied from a 50-light dynamo. For 


258 


TRACTION FARMING 


instance, if it is desired to run an electric motor that re¬ 
quires 380 to 400 watts, then while it is running there 
would be only about 350 to 370 watts available for lights 
or other work. 

General Information About Electric Lighting and 
Power Plants -.—Electric power is measured in kilowatts, 
usually abbreviated k.w.; 746 watts equal one horse 
power and 1,000 watts equal one kilowatt, which is, there¬ 
fore, equal to 1 1-3 h.p. 

Dynamos are rated in kilowatts—a 1 k.w. dynamo will 
give out electric power equal to 1 1-3 h.p., but it will take 
a little more than 1 1-3 h.p. to drive it because there are 
slight losses due to friction in the bearings and heating 
of the wires. 

Dynamos cannot be rated in lamps, for the reason that 
lamps take different amounts of electricity according to 
their candle power and the material of which they are 
made, and because there are losses in the wire between the 
dynamo and the lamps which use up a part of the dyna¬ 
mo's output and which vary with the size and length of 
the wire. 

The ordinary 16 candle power, carbon filament lamp 
takes 50 watts—some take more than this and some less, 
according to their efficiency. Monarch Mazda lamps are 
made in various sizes; 15-watt lamps (low voltage only) 
give 12 candle power, 25-watt lamps give 20 candle power, 
40-watt lamps give 32 candle power, and 60-watt lamps 
give 50 candle power. 

Voltage is the pressure at which the electric current is 
generated and transmitted. Small residence plants are 
operated at 30 volts—large lighting plants are usually 
operated at 110 to 220 volts. 

Small dynamos are usually belt driven, but may be 


ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 


259 


direct connected to the engine. Large dynamos are often 
direct connected because floor space is saved and the use 
of a belt avoided, but this system is more costly than 
belt driving and its chief advantage lies in the economy 
of space. 

A steady, uniform speed of the dynamo is necessary for 
electric lighting, otherwise the lights will flicker. Hence, 
a close regulating high grade engine is necessary. 




PART III 






































I 

























































* 






















PART III. 


CHAPTER I. 

THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 

Cylinder .—The usual form of construction of a thresh¬ 
ing cylinder consists of parallel bars secured to the heads 
or spokes by means of bands shrunk around them, the 
cylinder teeth being inserted through the bars and secured 
by nuts on the inside. There are usually 12 or 20 bars 
(see Figures 1 and 2), the object being to increase the 
weight of the cylinder by using more and heavier bars, 
to insure a more uniform and steady motion. 

The cylinder should be kept thoroughly in balance. 
When the cylinder is out of balance the fact is easily 
detected by the jarring or short vibrations in its vicinity. 
This may be noted by placing a hand on the framework 
near the cylinder boxes. The side on which this is most 
plainly felt indicates the end of the cylinder at fault. 

If permitted to run so, it will have a tendency to cause 
the cylinder boxes to heat and wear out much more 
rapidly, and also has a tendency to flatten the cylinder 
shaft on the side th^t receives the wearing strain. A 
smoothly running cylinder requires much less power to 
drive it; as whatever force it takes to cause the vibration 


263 



264 


TRACTION FARMING 


is so much power lost, besides interfering with the work¬ 
ing and lasting qualities of the machine. Excessive vibra¬ 
tion has a tendency to loosen the framework of the entire 
machine. 

A cylinder may be put in balance by removing it and 



FIGURE 1. 

Showing a 12-Bar Cylinder. 


placing it on two straight edges set up edgewise to receive 
the journals of the cylinder shaft. The squares or straight 
edges should first be trued up with a spirit level, and may 
be held in position on edge by driving spikes on either 
side. The cylinder will adjust itself by turning on the 
straight edges, the heavier side going down. Wedges, or 
pieces of iron of sufficient weight, should be driven in be¬ 
tween the band and head on the light or upper side of the 







THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


265 


cylinder to cause it to balance or remain without turning 
in any position in which it may be placed. 

If cylinders are properly balanced when they come from 
the shop this method will usually put them in good work¬ 
ing order. However, a cylinder may indicate to be in 



FIGURE 2 . 

Showing a 20-Bar Cylinder. 

perfect balance on the straight edges but in motion in the 
machine not so, the cause being that one end is heavier 
on one side while the other end of the cylinder is corre¬ 
spondingly heavy on the opposite side, thus preventing 























266 


TRACTION FARMING 


the straight edges from indicating which is the heavier 
side. In such case the cylinder should be revolved at 
a rapid speed in loose boxes, and while in motion a piece 
of chalk held stationary near enough to the shaft at the 
journal to slightly mark it. This will indicate the light 
side, and a balancing piece should be inserted as before. 
Both ends should be trued in the same manner. 

A cylinder is sometimes thrown out of balance by put¬ 
ting in part new teeth, leaving a part of the worn ones 
in, and not having them evenly distributed around the 
cylinder. In this case the remedy is to put in all new 
teeth where they are much worn. 

The function of the cylinder is to loosen the kernels 
from the straw. This is accomplished by the cylinder 
tooth striking the unthreshed head with sufficient force 
to jar the kernels loose from the chaff. The cylinder 
should be run with sufficient speed to entirely free all the 
kernels, and not leave any in the straw. If for any rea¬ 
son the cylinder does not do its work thoroughly, the 
result is the wasting of grain. In some instances some of 
the kernels will be partially loosened, but adhere to the 
head until nearly through the machine, when they will 
fall out and be carried along with the straw to the straw 
stack, thus making it appeajr that the fault is in the 
separating apparatus, when it is really in the cylinder. 

The ordinary speed of a cylinder is from 750 to 1,075 
r.p.m., giving a speed of about 6,000 ft. per minute to the 
teeth. 

The cylinder boxes, or journal bearings, should be 
adjusted endwise so as to bring the cylinder teeth midway 
between the concave teeth. 

End play of the cylinder journals should be avoided 
as much as possible. The separator should stand still 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


267 


on its trucks while in operation, as its vibration con¬ 
sumes power. 

Concaves (Figure 3) should be sufficiently strong to 
stand the enormous strain they are subjected to in “slug¬ 
ging” or threshing damp grain. Care should be used to 



FIGURE 3. 

View, Looking’ Down on the Concaves and Grates in a Case 20 
Bar Cylinder Machine. Pressed Boiler-Steel Sides. 


see that none of the teeth are too long or permit the con¬ 
cave being raised to its full height without striking. There 
should be stops provided to keep the concave from raising 
too high at either end. These should be adjusted to allow 
it to be raised as high as possible without striking the 
teeth. It is good practice to use the concave set clear up, 
and use less rows of teeth, rather than to use more teeth 
and lower the concave. In the latter case it leaves a 
































































268 


TRACTION FARMING 


space below the points of cylinder teeth to permit whole 
heads to pass without being acted upon sufficiently to shell 
the kernels out. When the work will permit, remove 
one or more of the concaves and insert blanks without 
teeth. However, in some cases where the straw is very 
dry and brittle and inclined to break up badly, the con¬ 
cave may be lowered a little to advantage. Some are 
constructed to adjust both rear and front. It is con¬ 
tended by some that a cylinder is less liable to “slug” 
when the concave is lowered in the rear and raised in 
front, than when up in the rear and down in front, on 
account of the wedge shaped angle presented for the 
straw to enter. 

Feed Board .—In hand feeding the tables and feed board 
should be kept smooth and free from nails to facilitate 
the moving of the straw. If the cylinder does not have 
draft enough, or take the straw free enough, it may be 
helped by rounding or curving the lower edge of the 
feed board that comes in contact with the concave. The 
straw will pass over this rounded portion more freely 
than it would pass the sharp angle, and be broken, or 
cut up less, a desirable point to be gained. 

It is good practice to keep the lower edge of the feed 
board on top of the concave, close to the cylinder teeth 
even when the concave is lowered somewhat. Then every 
head will be acted upon by the cylinder teeth as it enters, 
otherwise it might pass along close to the bottom of the 
concave unthreshed. 

Grates .—The grates (Figure 3) back of the concave 
are very essential to assist in separation, if the spaces 
between the grates are of sufficient width to freely permit 
flying kernels to fall through. The adjustment should be 
such that the straw passing from the concave will strike 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


269 


the surface of the grate at a slight angle. This will as¬ 
sist in the separation by directing the kernels through it. 
The action of the passing straw will also tend to keep the 
grate clean, and prevent it from loading up with chaff 
and sticks. 

Teeth .—The cylinder teeth should pass midway be¬ 
tween the concave teeth. Any bent ones may be straight¬ 
ened with a heavy hammer, and the cylinder boxes ad¬ 
justed edgewise to make all the teeth run squarely in 
the center. If permitted to have too much end play or run 
too close together it will cause cracking of the grain and 
chop the straw up too much; besides it may leave a corre¬ 
spondingly large opening at one side of the tooth that will 
permit heads of grain to pass unthreshed. 

The teeth shell the kernels from the head by striking 
them with such force as to jar them loose. The concave 
teeth are for the purpose of retarding the speed of the 
straw while receiving the action of the cylinder teeth. 
Only enough concave teeth should be used to hold the 
straw until threshed clean, as more would have a tendency 
to chop up the straw and consume unnecessary power. 
It also makes separation more difficult to have the straw 
cut up, as it packs together more than if the stalks are 
left comparatively whole. 

The teeth sometimes become loose and cause delay. 
This is more true of new teeth when being first used. 
This is on account of their not fitting perfectly, and the 
terrible strain they are subjected to when the straw is 
compressed in passing through, causes them to move in 
the bar slightly and each time they move the nut loosens 
a little and they are soon loose enough to strike and 
rattle. When new teeth are put in they should be watched 
carefully and tightened up occasionally until well seated, 


270 


TRACTION FARMING 


when they will stay without further attention. But the 
practice of some threshers is to give the teeth no attention 
until they begin to rattle and make a noise. Much time 
will be saved by going over the entire cylinder, having 
new teeth, with the wrench once or twice a day and see 
that every nut is set up tight. Many devices have been 
tried to keep the nuts from working loose, some of which 



i 


FIGURE 4. 

Interchangeable, Annealed and Tempered Cylinder and Concave 
Tooth, Nut and Spring "Washer. 


have points of merit. Some use wooden bars inside of 
the cylinder bars; the spring or natural tension of the 
wood serving to permit the tooth to spring a little and still 
remain tight. A twisted or spiral steel bar on the inside 
has been used to take up the wear. Teeth do not seem 
to loosen as badly in double bar as in single bar cylinders 
on account of the extra length of the shank to hold them 
from side movement of the tooth when the straw passes in 
in excessive quantities. Figure 4 illustrates one method, 
which is in use, by which to hold the nuts from turning 
by using a spring steel washer under the nut. Both 
square and round shanks are in use. Teeth should be 
made of steel, sufficiently hard to prevent too rapid wear. 





THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


271 


Worn cylinder teeth prevent the straw from entering the 
cylinder freely. They should be replaced by new ones 
as soon as they become very much worn. 

Beater .—The function of the beater is to take the straw 
from the cylinder as fast as it is threshed and pass it 
back to the separating device. The usual form of this 
device is a fan-like drum set in such a position that the 
straw and grain as it comes from the cylinder will pass 
either under or over it. 

It also serves as a check to the flying kernels from the 
cylinder which would otherwise be thrown back into the 
straw and thus retard separation. Another device used 
for this purpose is attached to some machines. It consists 
of a set of forks placed to work over a slatted rack lo¬ 
cated back of the cylinder. Other forms of beaters are 
used, while some machines work very well without a 
beater, letting the cylinder deliver direct to the separating 
device. 

The Check Board is a sheet iron apron hung just back 
of the beater. Its function is to arrest flying kernels. It 
should be sufficiently long and adjusted to come down 
low enough to arrest all flying kernels that come from the 
beater and cylinder, otherwise they would be thrown back 
on top of the straw so far towards the rear of the ma¬ 
chine as to be lost with the straw. 

Separating Devices -.—One of the most important fea¬ 
tures of a thresher is the separating device, the function 
of which is to receive the straw and grain as it comes 
from the cylinder, and pass the straw to the stack, and 
direct the grain to the shoe or fanning mill to be cleaned. 
While there are many different types of separators in 
use, they may be divided into two or three general classes. 
First, there is the vibrating or oscillating rack or table, 


TRACTION FARMING 


see Figure 5, and second, the traveling raddle or straw 
rake. Third, there may be a combination of these two. 
There are also accessories- used, in connection with these, 
such as revolving pickers or rakes, beaters, and fingers. 
The various types of separating racks or tables are usually 



FIGURE 5. 

Straw Rack and Grain Pan. 


constructed of slats, leaving spaces through which the 
grain may fall while the straw is being carried along on 
the upper surface of the moving rack. In some types this 
motion, which is imparted by means of a crank, is con¬ 
cave, in others it is convex, while in others the rack 
is caused to make a complete revolution, the object of the 
motion being to agitate the straw in such a manner as to 
permit the kernels to fall, and at the same time keep the 
straw moving along toward the rear of the machine. 
The ordinary vibrating rack acting on the under side of 
a quantity of straw tends to jar and compress it at each 
upward stroke of the rack. The straw of its own elas¬ 
ticity expands to its normal condition while up in the air 
free from the rack. 

The straw thus receives a succession of jars or shocks 
on its under side which will be more effective when the 
straw in falling comes in contact with the rack on its 




THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


273 


rising motion at one-half its stroke, because the rack 
travels at its highest speed at this point of its stroke. 
As the rack continues its upward stroke its speed grad¬ 
ually decreases until the top end of the stroke is reached. 
The same may be said of the down stroke. This is due 
to the peculiarities of the crank motion by which it is 
operated. 

The motion of the rack should be such that its upward 
stroke will cause the straw to continue its course slightly 
and permit the rack to descend from beneath it. Gravity 
then will begin to act upon the straw and cause it to start 
on its downward motion; the straw at first moves very 
slow but increases its speed as it descends toward the rack, 
and the momentum thus attained will cause it to strike the 
ascending rack with a sharp and jarring motion at the 
midway point before mentioned, if it has been properly 
timed. The weight of the straw will cause it to be pressed 
against the rack with force, while the stiffness of each 
straw that comes in contact with the rack will have a 
tendency to move it as related to its neighbor, and as soon 
as released at the upward end of the stroke it will again 
expand to its normal condition. 

This jarring, compressing and expanding movement ac¬ 
complishes the desired result in a remarkably perfect man¬ 
ner, when the vibrating column of straw is not too thick 
and bulky. If the column of straw is so deep that the jar¬ 
ring motion of the rack is not felt through its entire col¬ 
umn, the results are not as good. The upper part of the 
column of straw will float along without receiving the es¬ 
sential jarring motion of the rack on account of the 
springiness or elasticity of the intervening straws. While 
on the other hand if the rack is made to vibrate faster, and 
to throw the straw higher, the tendency is to also throw 


274 


TRACTION FARMING 


the grain; being of the greater specific gravity, it will con¬ 
tinue its upward course in excess of the straw if the op¬ 
portunity presents itself and thus retard separation. 

The ordinary raddle is constructed of belting running 
over pulleys with laterally secured slats that will permit 
the grain to fall through and carry the straw along on 
their upper side. They seem to accomplish their work in 
a more perfect manner when their motion is quite rapid, 
as this keeps the sheet of traveling straw much thinner, 
thus giving the kernels a better opportunity to fall out. 
The raddle should be of sufficient length to give the ker¬ 
nels ample time to fall clear through the slats before 
reaching the end. 

Some raddles are agitated while in motion by caus¬ 
ing them to travel over an irregularly shaped pulley, 
which produces a rapid jarring motion, having a tend¬ 
ency to move the stalks of straw slightly among them¬ 
selves. The point of contact where the straw falls on 
the raddle needs special attention. The straw at this 
point should be quite thin and loose. If in large or hard 
bunches, the tendency is to carry them along in one 
mass, not giving the kernels a chance to fall out. The 
separation will be more effective if the straw can fall a 
little distance so as to be traveling at right angles to the 
line of motion of the raddle when contact occurs. In 
the combination of the vibrating rack with the raddle, 
the straw usually passes over the rack first and then 
onto the raddle. At the point of delivery the action of 
the raddle pulls the straw apart and thins it, the tend¬ 
ency of the raddle being to take the straw much faster 
than the rack delivers it. 

The Shoe, or cleaning mill, is an important part of 
the separator and upon it depends largely the good work 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


275 


of the machine. In separating the grain from the straw 
there is a large amount of chaff and refuse delivered to 
the sieves with the grain. This is cleaned from the grain 
by passing it over a series of sieves through which a 
blast is being forced. A great deal depends on the per¬ 
fect working of the shoe, its function being to thor¬ 
oughly clean the grain without waste, and in quantities 
as fast as delivered to it. 

There are three things to be considered in a shoe, 
and on the arrangement of these three depends its work¬ 
ing, viz., the sieves, the blast and the motion. The sieves 
should be adapted to the kind of grain being threshed, 
and as few used as are necessary to do the work, as more 
retard the blast and catch straws and sticks. The blast 
should be sufficiently strong to insure its continued flow 
through the sieves, even when they are heavily loaded. 
The motion should be sufficiently strong to insure the 
chaff and kernels being moved on the surface of the 
sieve. 

The Fans for producing the blast are usually con¬ 
structed of a centrally revolving shaft with radiating 
arms, on which are secured fans to cause the air to 
rotate with it and produce the blast by admitting it at 
the ends, and forcing it out by centrifugal force at the 
periphery. 

Some are revolved in one direction and some in the 
other. Those where the top of the fan travels toward 
the sieves are called overblast fans, and when constructed 
to revolve in the opposite direction, they are called under¬ 
blast fans. Both styles are in common use and accom¬ 
plish the work intended. There is a large variety of 
sieves made and used. Of late years the inclination 
seems to be favorable to the perforated metal and corru- 


276 


TRACTION FARMING 


gated iron sieves, though wood and wire sieves are in 
use. The proper qualifications of a sieve are to permit 
the grain to fall through, pass the chaff and sticks over 
it, direct the proper amount of blast in the right direction 
and prevent the straws and sticks being retained in the 
meshes. The usual practice is to use a sieve adapted to 
each class of work, though there are some combinations 
that operate well on different kinds of grain. The usual 
plan is to have the upper sieve, called the chaffer, secured 
permanently, and of sufficiently large mesh to adapt it to 
the coarsest kinds of grain, while the lower ones are 
made interchangeable, to be varied according to the kind 
of work to be done. The openings in the sieve should be 
of sufficient size to permit the clean kernels to pass 
freely, and only enough of said openings to allow the 
proper volume of air blast to pass through. These open¬ 
ings should be of such a nature as to cause the air blast 
to flow in a perpendicular direction. 

The Blast is an important feature of a well regulated 
shoe. It should be of sufficient volume to lift all light mat¬ 
ter, and of sufficient pressure or force to cause a continu¬ 
ous and uniform flow through the meshes of the sieves. 

This blast should be strongest directly in the open¬ 
ings or meshes of the sieve, while a short distance above 
the surface it should be mild or light. This condition 
is secured by making the blind portion of the sieve in 
proper proportion to the opening of the meshes, which is 
found in practice to be 5 to 7. That is, the solid, or blind, 
portion of the sieve should be 5-12 of the surface, while 
the openings in the meshes conq rise 7-12. This rule 
applies particularly when the course of the blast is at 
right angles to the surface of the sieve. 

The blast should be sufficiently strong to insure its 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


277 


continual flow under all circumstances and conditions, 
but not of enough speed to blow any of the grain over 
with the chaff. There is a difference between a blast 
of strong pressure and a blast of fast speed. A blast of 
air may be traveling comparatively slow and still go 
with force and be difficult to stop, like that produced 
from a slow-moving air pump; or it may be moving 
quite rapidly, but with no particular force more than 
the inertia produced by its own weight, like the breeze 
of a summer day or the stroke of a lady’s fan. The 
least obstruction would stop or turn such a blast. The 
kernels of grain will fall through a blast of any pres¬ 
sure or strength, but will not fall through a very fast¬ 
traveling blast. 

The chaff is easily lifted on account of its light spe¬ 
cific gravity. To do good work then, it requires a mild 
or slow blast delivered with strength or force. This 
blast should be spread under the entire surface of the 
sieve and be made to flow through every mesh. It 
should be the strongest and of greatest quantity at the 
front end of the sieve where it receives the grain and 
chaff, for it is here where the greatest work is to be 
done in lifting the sheet of chaff intermingled with 
grain, and decrease in quantity and pressure toward the 
rear end. where less work is required. Then if a light 
kernel has been lifted with the chaff at the front end, it 
will give it a chance to fall before reaching the rear 
end of the sieve. 

If the blast is made to pass through the chaff as soon 
as it enters the upper sieve, it will lift it and cause it 
to separate and expand, the lightest flying out first, giv¬ 
ing the kernels a free opportunity to fall through the 
sieve much more quickly than if the blast were not 


278 


TRACTION FARMING 


strong enough to keep the meshes open and cleared of 
chaff. Besides, if the blast ceases to flow through any 
of the meshes, the fine dust and chaff will fall through 
and cause the second sieve to be overloaded, and thus 
the grain may retain a part of the chaff and dirt. The 
motion of the shoe should be sufficiently strong and 
rapid to move the grain and chaff on the surface of the 
sieves. Too strong a motion will interfere with the ker¬ 
nels in falling through the meshes properly and cause the 
grain to be carried over, either with the chaff or into 
the tailings spout. It is found in practice that the up¬ 
per sieve or chaffer requires a longer and more positive 
stroke than the lower sieves. This is on account of the 
excessive quantities of chaff and cut up straw to be 
carried along. For this reason the upper sieve is usu¬ 
ally placed in a different frame and given a longer 
stroke while those in the shoe receive a shorter and 
more rapid stroke. 

The coarser and looser the material to be handled, 
the longer and more vigorous the motion should be. The 
straw rack loaded with loose fluffy straw requires quite 
a long stroke to be effective. The conveyor and chaffer 
sieves will use less, and the shoe sieves still less. 

It will be seen, that if the straw rack had no more 
motion than the shoe it would scarcely move the straw 
at all. On the other hand, if the shoe had as much 
motion as the straw rack, it would throw the grain in 
such a fierce manner as to prevent much of it from 
passing through the sieve. This is on account of the 
difference in elasticity, or springiness of the materials 
to be moved. It is then quite essential that the motion 
should be adapted to the class of work to be done. In 
end shake sieves, i.e., the stroke being endwise of the 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


279 


machine, this motion should be upwards and backwards 
with more of an uplift, and should be only sufficiently 
strong or rapid enough to cause the grain to be carried 
along in as quiet a manner as possible. 

The sieves should be stiff and rigid enough to pre¬ 
vent their springing much in the center, for if they do 
it will make the motion too strong there, causing the 
grain in the center of the sieves to be thrown too high, 
preventing it from properly falling through the meshes. 
This will be apparent when we consider the frame of 
the sieve traveling 2 ins. at each stroke, and making 250 
strokes per minute, the sieve then will travel 500 ins. 
per minute. Now, if the sieve springs 1 in. each stroke, 
the center of the sieve has traveled 3 ins. each stroke, 
or 750 ins. each minute, which may be a motion entirely 
too strong, and it will be seen that the center of the 
sieve receiving the stronger motion will act upon the 
grain in a more vigorous manner than the portion of it 
which has less motion. 

It is also necessary for a shoe having a weak blast 
to have a stronger motion to assist in carrying off the 
refuse and chaff at times when the blast is overtaxed, 
such as in wet or damp threshing or when an undue 
amount of chaff and cut straw loaded with dust is de¬ 
livered to it. 

In side shake shoes, i.e., when the motion is sideways 
to the machine, the motion should be sufficiently strong 
and long to cause the sieve to move under the grain and 
chaff, and keep it in motion to aid the blast in carrying 
it along toward the rear end. 

The blast may be at a greater angle from the per¬ 
pendicular inside shake shoes, as it is the only means 
of carrying the chaff and refuse along to the rear. In 


280 


TRACTION FARMING 


the end shake the upward and backward motion assists 
in moving it. The motion in a side shake may be given 
an upward rocking at each side as the stroke is finished. 

This is accomplished by using short hangers and ad¬ 
justing them so as to be at an angle sideways to the 
machine. As the shoe is moved sideways one side of it 
will continue to rise, and the other to lower, thus giving 
the grain a slight upward motion at each stroke. 

Feeding .—A separator, to work in harmony with the 
engine should be fed uniformly, keeping a continuous 
flow of straw through the cylinder at all times. When 
grain is passed into the cylinder it tends to check its 
speed, and the increased load on the engine requires ad¬ 
ditional power in order to maintain a uniform speed. 
This the engine governor will take care of by admitting 
more gasoline or steam, as the case may be. But if the 
cylinder is allowed to run empty of straw the speed 
will at once tend to increase beyond normal, and the 
result is a variation of speed each time a bundle goes 
into the cylinder. 

This variation of speed can be avoided if in feeding 
the bundle is properly divided up and lapped on to the 
next one. 

This applies to both hand- and self-feeding. A com¬ 
pact bundle large enough to slug should not be permitted 
to enter the cylinder. 

Self-Feeders .—After patient study and much experi¬ 
menting on the part of manufacturers, the self-feeder 
and band-cutter has at last reached a degree of perfec¬ 
tion that makes it a desirable part of the complete 
threshing equipment. The function of the self-feeder is 
to cut the bands, loosen the bundles, dividing them into 
a sufficiently thin stream which, passing into the cylin- 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


2S1 


der continuously, will not slug it. To do this it is nec¬ 
essary that the bundles be drawn out or divided in some 
way that the cylinder may not receive the whole bundle 
at one time. One method of accomplishing this is to 
pass the lower portion of the bundle toward the cylin¬ 
der slowly while the top portion has its speed increased 
by some faster traveling mechanism above it. This 
forces the top straws ahead, while the lower ones are 
being retarded, and must be accomplished before the 
bundle reaches the cylinder. The more completely this 
is done, the better the feeder and the better the machine 
will work. Some self-feeders are equipped with gov¬ 
ernors which regulate the amount being fed to the ma¬ 
chine by disengaging a mechanism whereby the feeder is 
thrown out of gear when the speed of the cylinder is 
reduced below a predetermined number of revolutions 
per minute. This type is termed the speed governor. 
Another type is the straw governor, which regulates by 
the amount or bulk of the traveling column of straw. 

The Straw Governor is an important improvement. 
It performs entirely different functions from the speed 
governor. The speed governor stops the entire feeder 
when the speed drops below a certain point. The straw 
governor does not depend on the speed for its action, 
but upon the volume of straw passing into the feeder. 
The “straw shoes,” which are of channel-shaped steel, 
attached to a square shaft pivoted in front of the crank¬ 
shaft, ride upon the stream of straw passing into the 
feeder. When this stream of straw is deeper than the 
straw governor is set for, it will cause the shoes to rise 
and disengage a clutch on the sprocket wheel driving the 
carrier. 

The carrier is the only part of the feeder stopped by 


282 


TRACTION FARMING 


the straw governor, and since the knife arms are be¬ 
tween the straw shoes and do not stop, they quickly re¬ 
duce the amount of grain under the straw shoes, allow¬ 
ing them to drop and start the carrier rake. 

The length of the connection between the crank on 
the square shaft and the clutch arm is easily adjusted 
by means of a wing nut. This adjustment gives the 
operator complete control of the amount of grain going 
to the cylinder, and, if necessary, he can set the straw 
governor so that the feeder will feed but half a bundle 
at a time. The knife arms travel very rapidly, quickly 
reducing the amount of grain under the straw shoes, so 
that the carrier is stopped only a short time. In fact, 
the length of time it is stopped is often almost imper¬ 
ceptible, but prevents slugging of the cylinder. 

Figure 6 shows a sectional view of the J. I. Case & 
Co. self-feeder equipped with the straw governor. The 
bundles in most feeders are first deposited on the car¬ 
rier, which moves them along to the band-cutting de¬ 
vice by means of a raddle constructed of belting with 
laterally secured slats, or canvas covered table. As the 
bundles move toward the cylinder, they are acted upon 
by the band cutters, which should be sufficiently near 
together and travel close enough to the table to insure 
all the bands being cut. The bundles should at the same 
time be thoroughly picked apart, and this function in 
most of the feeders is performed by the band-cutters in 
such a manner as to throw the top straws ahead toward 
the cylinder. 

A properly constructed self-feeder requires but very 
little more power to thresh, the same quantity of grain 
in the same time, as it divides up the bundles, and feeds 
clear across the cylinder much better than is done by 
hand. 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


283 



<© 

H 

« 

£ 

O 

E 


Self Feeder with Straw Governor Attached. 























284 


TRACTION FARMING 


Also with the use of self-feeders the pitchers usually 
pass the bundles along a little faster because they do not 
have to use the same caution about placing them on the 
table as they do in hand-feeding, only observing the 
amount being handled. 



FIGURE 7. 


Figure 7 represents another plan of self-feeder and 
band-cutter, and shows the arrangement of the different 
parts from which its working may be easily understood. 

The bundles are placed on the carrier C; as they pass 
under the disc G the bands are caught up by the notched 
teeth and forced against the lower end of the cutting 
knives H. The frame E is hinged so the disc head may 






























THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


285 


adjust itself to the thickness of the traveling sheaves as 
they pass under it. The bundle carrier delivers the 
grain on to the retaining board O, which is supported by 
the coil spring S. 

The lower portion of the retaining board is slotted to 
permit the fingers R to project through, when the board 
is depressed by the grain being pressed against it by the 
traveling rake O, which takes the straw from the board 
Q and delivers it on to the feed board P, where it passes 
into the cylinder. 

Instead of the discs G cutting the bands they serve 
only as pickers to pick up the bands and press them 
against the stationary knives H. There are enough discs 
and knives arranged across the carrier to prevent the 
possibility of any bundles passing between and not have 
their bands cut. 

The distance between the front end of the carrier and 
the traveling rake O forms a reservoir in which to hold 
a quantity of grain. The yielding board Q, having the 
office of pressing it against the rake which only takes off 
a given portion, it being the amount the length of the 
teeth will grasp and move. 

Should the quantity of grain become excessive, the 
yielding board Q will be depressed and a connecting 
mechanism throws the carrier out of gear and stops its 
travel until said board reaches its normal position again. 

The size of the throat may be varied by sliding the 
fingers R, and retained in position by the thumb nut W 
and washer U. 

Figure 8 represents a class called crank feeders. 

The bundles are placed on the sheaf carrier, which 
deposits them on the oscillating bottom or feed board, 
where they are acted upon by the band-cutting knives 


286 


TRACTION FARMING 


above. The knives are operated by a multiple crank 
which gives the forward part of the bars holding the 
knives a circular motion, and the rear end an angular 
parallel motion. This action cuts the bands and tends 
to elongate the bundle towards the cylinder; the notched 



CARRIER ROLLCH 


SHEAF CARRIE 


THRESH INQ 


CYLINDER 


FIGURE 8. 


pieces below tending to retard the bottom portion of 
the grain somewhat, while the knives cut and loosen 
from above. 

The cranks are constructed so the knife bars balance, 
as they revolve, by being set opposite each other. 

Figure 9 shows a sectional view of a modern steel 
thresher equipped with all the latest improvements. 

Feeders for Headed Grain .—In Washington, Oregon 
and California the grain is headed and stacked in ricks. 
These grain ricks are about 110 ft. in length, arranged 
























THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


287 



FIGURE 9, 
















288 


TRACTION FARMING 


in groups of four—two on each side of a track wide 
enough to permit the derrick wagon to pass between 
them. 

This derrick wagon consists of a platform about 14x20 
mounted on low trucks and supporting a derrick to carry 
the rope sheaves for the fork cables, which are usually 
in. in diameter and 120 ft. long. 

Four derrick forks are used, two forks and two teams 
being required for an engine outfit. The end of the 





FIGURE 10. 

Feeder for Headed Grain. 

side carrier of the feeder rests on the derrick wagon, 
the threshing machine being set alongside of the stacks, 
so that the whole side is free for taking away the 
threshed grain. 

Where the grain is threshed directly from the headers 
without stacking, the end of the long carrier is usually 
placed on the ground over which a canvas is spread. If 
the derrick is used, the header wagon boxes are ar- 







THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 289 

ranged so that the cable hooks to them and dumps the 
grain into a net which is spread in the boxes before they 
are filled. Often, however, the header wagon drivers 
pitch the headings into the canvas spread on the ground. 

One of these feeders for headed grain is illustrated in 
Figure 10. 



FIGURE 11 . 

Stacker Drive and Elevation of Carrier. 


Wind Stackers .—The wind stacker carries the straw 
to the stack by means of a strong blast of air passing 
through the tube or pipe into which the straw is fed. 







200 


TRACTION FARMING 


The air blast is supplied by a fan operated by belt. Con¬ 
siderable power is required to drive this fan, but this 
type of stacker possesses the advantage of being able to 
throw the straw farther from its outlet than the carrier 
stacker can. Another advantage in its favor is that it 
requires no extra effort to set it, when commencing a 
new setting of stacks, or in moving the machine after 
the stacks are completed. 

Carrier Stacker .—Figure 11 is an elevation of this type 
of stacker. The main rake passes only through the up¬ 
right and outer sections, and runs loosely and as easily 
as on a straight stacker of the same length. There are 
pulleys at the top of the upright section as well as the 
bottom, and all of them are drivers. The sheet-iron straw 
guard prevents the straw, as it leaves the machine, from 
being scattered by the wind. It is fitted wtih canvas cur¬ 
tains around the lower edge, which prevent littering, even 
with a strong side wind. By changing the position of the 
trip pins the stacker can be made to swing in any desired 
part of the half circle irrespective of elevation. It is driv¬ 
en from the threshing machine cylinder, and the belt runs 
free of all parts of the machine or stacker without the 
use of idlers or guides. It is always locked in position 
and the slipping of a dog will not cause it to fall. The 
crank for folding it is at the right for the operator stand¬ 
ing on the ground. 

The folding device is also the raising device, and is 
both simple and safe. The upright section is hinged to 
the lower end, and is raised or lowered by means of the 
screw support on top of the threshing machine. 

Handling the Threshed Grain .—There are various 
styles of weighers, sackers, measures and wagon loaders 
in use for handling the cleaned grain as it comes from the 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 291 

machine. One type weighs the grain and registers the 
number of bushels delivered. This is shown in Figure 
12. There are also those that measure the grain instead 
of weighing it, keeping a record of the amount on a suit- 



* FIGURE 12. 

Head of Regular Weigher, Showing Scale Beam, Tallier and 

Hopper. 


ably arranged tallier. Then there is the common short 
sacker, a very handy and common means of getting the 
grain sacked, requiring one man to operate it. Lastly 
comes the wagon-loader, an arrangement that delivers to 
either side of the machine without any device for record¬ 
ing the quantity handled. 














292 


TRACTION FARMING 


Operation .—In operation, the threshing machine, the 
same as any other machine, will do the best work when 
properly managed. 

Scarcely two fields of grain have grown, ripened and 
been cut and handled the same. One may be in a condi¬ 
tion to shell from the straw easily, while in another the 
kernels may cling to the chaff or heads so as to make it 
almost impossible to dislodge them. One stack of grain 
may be brittle and cut up, another may pass through 
without breaking up much. One kind may be stiff and 
stubborn, another soft and pliable. One lot may have 
many blades or leaves on the stalks, another only the plain 
stalk and head. One kind may have a light fluffy chaff 
and dense heavy kernels, another with the chaff heavy 
and filled with sap and the kernel as light as the chaff. 
Some fields are filled with weeds and foreign matter 
which the machine is expected to distinguish and separate 
from the grain. 

Then again some conditions require more power than 
others to drive the machine. Some days are bright and 
sunshiny, others damp and foggy. Some warm or hot, 
others cold. There may be a hard wind blowing or none 
at all, each condition affecting the machine in a different 
way. The experienced operator is expected to meet all 
these varied conditions and save every kernel, and clean 
the grain perfectly, and do many other things well nigh 
impossible. But the man who understands the machine 
and its workings best, will come the nearest to perfection 
in the operation of the same. 

The cylinder should receive special attention and be 
kept in good condition. If it is too much out of balance 
it should be taken from the machine and set on straight 
edges and put in balance again by inserting counterbal- 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


293 


ancing weighs on the light side. The boxes should not 
be run too tight as it consumes a large amount of power 
to overcome the extra friction. 

The teeth should not be permitted to become so worn 
and rounded as to retard the straw from entering the 
cylinder freely. Part new teeth divided equally around 
and along the cylinder, will assist in the suction of the 
straw, and thresh clean also. 

The cracking of grain is usually caused by one or more 
teeth running so near the concave teeth or bottom as not 
to permit a whole kernel to pass, and by being wedged 
between the teeth the kernel is cracked or broken. Only 
sufficient concave teeth should be used to retard the straw 
long enough in its passage through the cylinder to allow 
all the kernels to be loosened. In threshing oats, two 
rows are usually sufficient. In sections where flax is 
grown it is a good plan to have a concave especially de¬ 
signed, with the teeth closer together, and the cylinder 
running at a high speed. The same conditions apply to 
barley. The grate back of the concave should be raised 
at the rear side enough to permit the stream of straw 
and grain flowing from the cylinder to strike its face at 
a slight angle. The beater should be in a position for the 
straw to pass it without changing the course of the straw 
too much, that is, it should be in such a position that the 
straw coming from the cylinder will not strike it near 
the center, as it would then have to change its course 
to pass under or over the beater, as the case may be. 

When the straw passes under, the beater should be only 
low enough to reach the straw sufficiently to keep it mov¬ 
ing. 

In the scheme of separation the first essential feature 
is to have the cylinder leave the straw as near whole as 


294 


TRACTION FARMING 


possible and have it threshed clean of kernels. The 
nearer whole the stalks are the more freely will the ker¬ 
nels fall out, as it will not pack together so much as if 
cut and broken up. 

In some cases the stalks are heavily loaded with leaves 
that break loose and cut up forming a homogeneous mass 
in which the kernels are lodged and retained. 

Oats in some cases are difficult to separate. In some 
sections of the country the rust forms on the stalks and 
leaves before being harvested. It usually leaves them 
very brittle, and the kernels blight, making them light. 
The rust on the stalks has a certain clinging roughness 
that makes them adhere to each other, and tends to re¬ 
tard the action of the rack or raddle in moving them 
about among each other, they having a tendency to move 
along in a continuous mass. In such cases all that can 
be done is to adjust the machine to the best advantage, 
run with a full motion and regulate the amount being fed 
accordingly. 

In threshing rye, which is usually very easily separated 
on account of the stalks being stiff, comparatively little 
chaff and leaves are found to retard separation. In some 
cases the straw is so fluffy and loose as to prevent it being 
worked back fast enough by the separating devices, caus¬ 
ing the body of the machine to choke and fill up. This 
may be remedied somewhat by inserting more concave 
teeth to cut the straw up. 

The Check Board in vibrating machines can sometimes 
be weighted to advantage, which has a tendency to pound 
the straw down and compress it, giving the table a better 
chance to handle it. The check board can be weighted by 
fastening a piece of wood or iron to its back and upper 
side, running it lengthwise, and securing it by bolts or 
screws. 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


295 


The Shoe, or cleaning mill, should receive special study 
by any one who intends to make threshing a success. 
Though a very simple appearing device, it has many fea¬ 
tures that are not generally understood. The large va¬ 
riety of arrangements of the different parts prevents this 
book from going into the details of every machine, but it 
will deal with them in a general way that is applicable 
to all. 

The Motion of the shoe is varied in the different ma¬ 
chines, in some as short as ^ of an inch, up to 4 ins. in 
others, though there is not so much difference in the mo¬ 
tion of the upper sieve or chaffer. In most machines it is 
from 2 to 3 ins. The following rule will be found nearly 
correct, viz.: the shorter the stroke the more vibrations 
per minute, the longer the stroke the less the number of 
vibrations per minute. 

The Speed should be only strong and quick enough to 
throw the grain but slightly at the top finish of the stroke, 
if more than this, it is too strong and will carry or throw 
the grain, and a part of it will pass out with the chaff. 
If the motion is not strong enough to cause the grain to 
leave the upper surface of the sieve slightly at each 
stroke, the result is the meshes become filled with grain 
and chaff, the sieve or chaffer becomes choked and loaded 
up to such an extent as to allow but very little to pass 
through. If the mechanism is such that the upper part 
of the stroke is the more strong and quick leaving the 
lower end of the stroke slow and mild, all the better; as 
the upper part will do the throwing and agitating, while 
the slow part of the stroke will give the sieve time to 
come to rest for an instant, permitting the kernels to fall 
through much better. 

The Boxes and connections that operate the shoe should 


296 


TRACTION FARMING 


be kept in good order and not be permitted to get loose, 
as the loss of motion causes a pounding that jars the 
sieve causing it to spring and tremble, greatly interfering 
with the free passage of the kernels. 

The Blast should come in for its share of attention. 
Much depends upon it to accomplish good work and when 
once mastered and controlled it is a very obedient servant. 
But few changes have been adopted in the construction 
of the fans since they were first used in the separators. 
They have faults as well as virtues; they do not always 
send the proper amount of blast just where intended or 
needed most. 

There is a great difference in the condition of the ma¬ 
terial coming to the shoe to be handled at different times, 
and in different sections of the country. In parts of the 
country where spring wheat is raised there is much more 
work required of the shoe, there being more chaff; and 
the straw being stiffer and harder to thresh, breaks up 
much more than that of the variety known as winter 
wheat raised in other sections. 

Belts .—The success of a machine depends largely upon 
the working of the belts. Their proper care and manage¬ 
ment is of importance. The material should be of the 
best quality. 

Leather belts should always be run with the grain or 
smooth side to the pulley, as they will run easier, trans¬ 
mit more power and last longer. They will run easier 
because the flesh, or rough side, by being on the outside 
will expand more easily and adjust itself to the curve in 
passing around the pulley, which also has a tendency to 
add to the life of the belt. The smooth side will transmit 
more power because it brings more surface in contact 
with the pulley. They should be run only tight enough 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 297 

to perform the work without slipping, for whatever power 
is consumed in slipping is lost. If a belt is permitted to 
slip it will have a tendency to partially run off of the 
pulley, and will also soon wear out the lacings. 

If belts become dry and brittle they should have a 
dressing of neatsfoot oil with a very little resin mixed in 
it. Do not use enough resin to leave the surface of the 
belt sticky. A belt that is pliable will transmit more pow¬ 
er than if dry and hard. 

Rubber belting is also used quite extensively for some 
purposes, and when of the best grade is very economical, 
as its first cost is less than that of the best grades of 
leather. 

Chain or link belting is used, and in some places is 
preferable to any other. It never slips or runs off, nor 
does it ever come unlaced. When link belting is used it 
should not be run too tight, as it causes a trembling or 
jarring vibration as each link passes on to the sprocket. 

Babbitting Boxes .—With a little care and practice any 
one of ordinary ability can babbitt boxes. 

First remove the old babbitt and clean the boxes well, 
to get them free from grease and dampness, as the gases 
when heated will cause the babbitt to blow out. Bolt the 
boxes in place with shimming (pieces of pasteboard) 
between the halves to allow take up for wear. Hold the 
shaft in place at the center of the box by inserting a nar¬ 
row strip of leather around the shaft at the end of the box, 
then with clay moistened to the consistency of stiff dough 
thoroughly seal up all openings to prevent the liquid me¬ 
tal from running out. Place a wooden stick in the oil 
hole and plaster up, leaving the top flaring to pour the 
metal in. After all is in readiness remove the stick with 


298 


TRACTION FARMING 


care to prevent any clay from being broken loose and fall¬ 
ing into the box. 

In preparing the shimming between the boxes see that 
the edge of the shimming comes against the shaft, in or¬ 
der to separate the metal in the two halves. Cut two or 
three small notches in the shimming about l /& in. deep 
and 34 in. long to allow the babbitt to run in and fill the 
lower half of the box. 

To be successful the babbitt metal should be at about 
the temperature required to burn a piece of wood. To 
test it insert a stick into the melting metal occasionally, 
an I when it gets hot enough to make the stick smoke or 
turn black it is of the right perature. When pouring 
do not stop until the box is filled, as the metal chills very 
quickly and will not unite when fresh metal is poured in. 
The metal should be poured in as fast as it will run 
through the opening to insure its filling the lower half. 

If the lower half should not fill properly enlarge the 
openings in the shimming between the halves of the box 
and try it again. After pouring, remove the clay and 
break the box apart by driving a cold chisel between the 
halves, then dress off the points formed in the notches of 
the shimming. 

Relieve the shaft a little by scraping some of the bab¬ 
bitt metal away from the inside of the box, removing the 
most near the inside edges; also put in an extra piece of 
shimming, as the box would be too tight and would heat 
if left as babbitted. 

If a stick is inserted into the oil hole as soon as the 
metal is poured, it will form an oil hole and save drilling 
or punching same out. 

Lubrication .—In selecting a lubricant, attention should 
be given to the conditions under which it is to be used. 
In hot, dry weather a much heavier oil can be used than 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


299 


in cold weather. Mineral oils are usually to be pre¬ 
ferred to animal or vegetable oils. An excellent lubricant 
is made from petroleum and comes in the shape of a 
solidified oil or grease. Special cups are made for it. 

A good grade of oil for general purposes is what is 
called black or crude oil. It is a mineral product with 
all the light oils removed, and comes in different grades 
of density. The heavier qualities can be used in warm 
weather to advantage, while in colder climes the lighter 
grades will be found to run more freely, and not thicken 
as readily. 

Getting Ready .—If the machine is one that has been 
in use the year before, it should be put in good condition 
before the time announced to commence threshing by go¬ 
ing over it and seeing that every piece is in proper condi¬ 
tion to maintain a fall’s run. See that the boxes over the 
entire machine are properly adjusted and any worn ones 
set up. If too much worn they should be rebabbitted. A 
shaft should not be so loose in its bearings as to permit 
much rattling or moving back and forth. 

All boxes where the shaft is compelled to produce or 
withstand a vibrating motion should be kept in good con¬ 
dition and not be allowed to get loose at any time, as the 
least play will permit the shaft to pound at each vibrat¬ 
ing stroke, causing the shaft to wear flat. It will also 
prevent the part from being oscillated or vibrated smooth¬ 
ly and easily, and may interefere with its performing the 
functions intended. 

All vertical oil cups should have a piece of clean waste 
inserted to retain the oil and keep out the dust and dirt. 
See that every belt is properly laced and of the right ten¬ 
sion. If too tight, instead of over-straining it in putting 
it on, it is much the better plan to relieve it a little by 


TRACTION FARMING 


313 

% 

Ltting out the lacing, and then take it up when the belt 
has stretched. A little neatsfoot oil and resin will, if ap¬ 
plied to a belt, soften it and greatly prolong its life. If 
the frame of the machine is warped it should be gotten in 
line again. Straw rakes and raddles should be put in 
good condition. The tool box should be well equipped 
with all necessary tools, together with assorted sizes of 
bolts, screws, rivets, etc. If the machine is a new one, it 
should be put in its proper place and thoroughly inspected 
and all nuts tightened. The machine should be run empty 
for a time before assembling the crew. 

t 

The Crew .—The duty of the manager is to have charge 
of the machine and crew and see that everything is operat¬ 
ing properly, arrange the work so it may be done in the 
most expeditious manner, economize time and expense 
to accomplish the most with the least outlay of labor; 
look after the welfare and comfort of the crew, and see 
that each one performs the tasks assigned him. Much 
depends upon him for the success of the machine. 

To make the machine work properly and do its best 
it is necessary that each man should perform his part 
and it belongs to the manager to see that this is done 
and should be entirely under his control. 

The feeders should be sufficiently well acquainted with 
the machine to be able to work in harmony in order to 
aid in the successful progress of the work. The usual 
practice in hand feeding is for each to feed a given time 
or a given amount of grain when he is relieved by the 
other feeder. The feeder is the one depended on to reg¬ 
ulate the amount being threshed and much depends upon 
him to make the machine do a good day’s work. 

The feeding should be even and continuous and as 
near the same speed at all times as is practicable, that 


THE SCIENCE OF THRESHING 


301 


the crew may become accustomed to th£ amount of grain 
and straw to be handled, and be able to judge the 
amount of labor required of them. The motion and 
working of the machine should be kept well in mind 
and be noticed and corrected as soon as not right. The 
motion of the one feeding should be suited to the kind 
and conditions of the grain being threshed. The more 
the straw is divided up and spread out the less power is 
consumed in passing it through the cylinder. 

The pitchers are depended upon to get the grain to 
the machine in quantities as fast as qeeded and in a 
manner to facilitate work. There should be enough 
pitchers provided so the machine will not have to wait 
for grain or run partly empty, as it necessitates the re¬ 
mainder of the crew to be partly idle, and curtails the 
earnings of the machine. 

It is better practice for each man to keep his particu¬ 
lar position on his own side of the machine during the 
time he is with it. He then becomes accustomed to mov¬ 
ing the bundles in a certain way on that side, while on 
the other side the position would be reversed. 

The straw crezu are to take care of the straw as fast 
as delivered from the carrier. 

It will be found to be as easy to form and build a 

« 

good symmetrical stack as to simply push the straw back, 
without any reference to the form of the pile. 

The straw will have to be moved a less distance by 
beginning the stack well up toward the machine so the 
stacker will drop the straw nearer in the center of the 
stack, than if commenced back so far that the stacker 
comes only to the edge, as then it will have to be moved 
clear across the distance of the stack. To keep well the 
center should be tramped more. The outside portion 


302 


TRACTION FARMING 


will then settle more, causing the straws to incline down¬ 
ward at the outside, making a better watershed. 

Setting the Machine .—Some put great stress on how 
their separator is set when ready to work, though they 
can not always tell just why it must be that particular 
way. Some set one end a little high, others would set 
the same machine differently and contend it was nearer 
right. These ideas are usually gotten in threshing some 
particular setting which went extra good, other condi¬ 
tions being favorable, and not entirely understanding the 
features and functions of all the parts of the machine, 
they conceived the notion that it must be set just so. It 
is not to be understood by this that it makes no differ¬ 
ence as to how the machine is set, but it would be hard 
to explain the reasons why an inch either way would 
make any material difference. 

Sometimes with the vibrating rack, if the straw is 
loose and fluffy and the stroke is not sufficiently long 
and sharp to work it back fast enough to separate well, 
the separator may be lowered at the rear end to advan¬ 
tage as the straw will work off a little faster than if 
higher. 

The separator should be near enough level sideways 
to prevent the grain from shaking down to one side of 
the sieves. If the grain is blowing over on one side, it 
can sometimes be remedied by lowering that side of the 
machine, causing more grain to pass there, thus partly 
retarding the blast. 

Mozing .—During a fall’s run from one-fourth to one- 
half of the time is consumed in moving and setting, 
therefore a thresherman should study well to attain the 
most expeditious plan tc tear up and move. 

All should work together to clean up and be off to the 


TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


303 


next setting without delay. The manager and engineer 
should see that everything possible is loaded, the horses 
if used, gotten ready to hitch on, so that as soon as the 
belt is thrown off and rolled up everything is ready to go. 

If convenient, the setting should have been visited and 
the manager should see that it is properly cleared of all 
rubbish or stones that may be there, and decide which 
way the straw is to be thrown. 

A place should be provided for every article to be 
carried along. Each oil can, spade, bar and box should 
have its particular place. Commence to load up before 
the grain is all cleaned up, putting each piece in its place. 
By using a regular system the time consumed can be 
reduced to the minimum, and much labor saved. The 
engineer will have his engine properly oiled and greased 

and everything in order and ready to travel at once as 
soon as the belt is thrown off. 


CHAPTER II. 


TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES. 

In order to bring out more clearly the characteristics 
of modern threshing machines, several of the leading 
types of machines are described in detail and illustrated 
in the following pages. 


SAWYER-MASSEY THRESHER. 

Figure 13 is a semi-sectional view of the Sawyer-Mas- 
sey “Great West” thresher. These machines are built 
with either a 12- or 16-bar cylinder. The 16-bar size 
has been added after a series of experiments extending 
over a number of years, which prove it to be the most 
suitable size for a large cylinder, and one that has given 
the best satisfaction. As shown in Figure 13, there is 
sufficient grate surface to insure perfect separation. 
Figure 14 shows a front view of the 16-bar cylinder. 
The pulleys are of large diameter and of sufficient width 
of face to prevent belt slippage. 

Concaves .—Figures 15 and 16 illustrate the concaves 
and grates. Figure 16 shows the large number of com¬ 
binations that can be made with this equipment, depend¬ 
ing upon the number of teeth required in the concaves 
according to the condition of the grain. 


304 





















306 


TOACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 14. 

Front View of 16-Bar Cylinder. 



FIGURE 15. 

Concaves and Grates for “Great West” 16-Bar Cylinder, 


































TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


307 


The distance between the concaves and the cylinder it¬ 
self can be regulated with ease and rapidity while the 

machine is in motion to suit all kinds and conditions of 
grain. 



FIGURE 16. 

Showing Details of Concaves and Grates. 


Belt-Tightener .—Figure 17 shows the belt-tightener 
that is used on this thresher. This device permits the 
use of an endless belt for driving the agitators. The 
cylinder boxes, one of which appears in Figure 17, are 



























308 


TRACTION FARMING 


well babbitted, and they are equipped with grease cups 
and oilers on the bottom. 

Feeder .—Figure 18 illustrates the No. 2 feeder, which 
has several excellent features: It is made of heavy 


2 



FIGURE 17. 

Cylinder Boxes and Belt Tightener. 


steel; light running, taking very little power; delivery 
of grain to the cylinder at the proper point to save 
power and assist clean threshing; large pulleys, insuring 









309 


TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 

sufficient belt surface; convenient accessibility of work- 
ing parts when running, for oiling, etc., no crankshafts 
or eccentrics, all straight line shafts, perfectly balanced 
and noiseless in action; a retarder that works perfectly 
and does not permit slugging, no matter in what condi¬ 
tion the grain is; a distributing wing beater with teeth 
similar to those in the threshing cylinder of the sepa¬ 
rator. 



FIGURE 18. 

The New Sawyer-Massey Feeder No. 2. 

The sheaves are up-ended just as they reach the cyl¬ 
inder and go down between the cylinder and concaves 
vertically, head first. The retarder being in the proper 
position and speeded correctly, holds the under side of 
the sheaf from slipping into the cylinder until the top 
side has been gradually combed off, when the retarder 
relieves the balance. This operation continues con¬ 
stantly while grain is being fed to the machine. 




310 


TRACTION FARMING 


NEW RACINE THRESHER. 

Figure 19 is a view of the New Racine thresher, built 
by the International Harvester Co. The steel cylinder 
is shown in Figure 20. 

The cylinder shaft is made of heavy machine steel, 



FIGURE 19. 

Left Hand Side of New Racine Thresher—48, 52, and 56-inch Rear 
—with Feeder, Wind Stacker, and Weigher with 
Swinging Conveyor. 


and runs in extra long bearings of the ball-and-socket 
self-aligning type. The best quality of frictionless bab¬ 
bitt metal, accurately scraped and snugly fitted to the 
shaft, insures a maximum saving in the operative power 










TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


311 


at this point. Oil wells of large size with hinged covers 
supply a steady flow of oil. The cylinder is supported 
within a heavy cast iron frame which is securely bolted 
to the framing timbers and sill of the thresher body. 
The iron sides of this frame are securely braced by 
steel rods. 

Tooth Bars .—The tooth bars are so securely connected 
to the heads of the cylinder that practically a one-piece 
mechanism is formed. The teeth are fastened to the 



FIGURE 20 . 

New Racine Bar Cylinder Used On the Larger Sizes. 


tooth bars and held on the inside in such a manner that 
it is practically impossible for them to work loose. Bent 
teeth can be straightened with a tooth set furnished 
with each machine. 

Teeth .—Figure 21 illustrates the steel tooth used in 
these threshers. The cylinder teeth are made from a 
special grade of steel and, without being brittle, are suf¬ 
ficiently hard to withstand successfully all the wear and 
hard work to which they may be subjected. They are 
secured to the cylinder by nut and lock spring washers 












312 


TRACTION FARMING 




FIGURE 21. 
Cylinder Tooth. 


and the holes fit the shanks of the teeth perfectly. The 
teeth are therefore held so rigidly in place that they 
really become a fixed part of the cylinder. To insure 
easy feeding, proper attention has been given to the 
angle at which the concaves are set and to the shape of 
the teeth. One very important point is that the cylinder 



FIGURE 22. 
Concaves and Grates. 
















TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


313 


teeth and concave teeth are interchangeable, being of one 
size and shape. 

Concaves and Grates .—These threshers are fitted with 
space for three concaves. See Figure 22. All machines 
are equipped with two concaves filled with teeth and 
one without teeth, and with two steel concave grates. 



FIGURE 23. 
Steel Beater. 


This equipment gives all the range that is necessary to 
thoroughly thresh the grain from the straw under vari¬ 
ous conditions. The teeth are of heavy design and the 
steel strap through which the shank of the tooth passes 



314 


TRACTION FARMING 


and is bolted, insures strength and reduces the liability 
of breakage to a minimum. Directly behind the con¬ 
caves is a grate which extends rearward and upward 
under the beater. Here also large openings are made 
so that separation as soon as possible can be accom¬ 
plished. About 95 per cent of the grain is separated 
just back of the cylinder. By allowing a liberal grate 
area, much of the grain that would otherwise mix with 
the straw is saved. 

Beater and Check .—The condition of the straw after 
passing through the concaves is such that with proper 
handling the best results can be secured with the winged 
beater, which is one of the best and most effective devices 
known for its purpose. The action of the beater (see 
Figure 23) is similar to that of a flail as it beats the ker¬ 
nels of the grain down through the thin layer of straw 
onto the conveyor. 

Just back of the heater is a sheet steel check flap to 
keep the stray kernels from being thrown out at the 
rear of the machine and to hold or retard the movement 
of dry and brittle straw. The size of the opening can be 
easily adjusted from the outside simply by raising or low¬ 
ering this check flap. 

Ruth Feeder .—The Ruth feeder feeds the grain with¬ 
out slugging the cylinder or loosening a tooth. Every 
thresherman knows that slugging the separator causes a 
certain amount of grain to be lost in the stack, besides 
breaking the cylinder teeth and concaves, burning expen¬ 
sive belts, and shortening the life of the threshing outfit. 
Where the Ruth feeder, Figure 24, is employed, every 
band is cut and every bundle thoroughly loosened up and 
pulled apart before it can pass to the separator cylinder. 

The Pickering governor used on the Ruth feeder is 


TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


315 


very sensitive. Whenever the feeder cylinder falls be¬ 
low the proper speed, the governor operates the trip lever 
which stops the raddle until the mass of grain is disposed 
of by the feeder cylinder and retarder. The governor 



FIGURE 24. 
The Ruth Feeder. 


then permits the raddle to run. The feeding of the grain 
to the separator does not stop, but continues in an even, 
steady flow. 


BUFFALO PITTS THRESHER. 

Figure 25 shows a view of the “Niagara Second” 
thresher built by the Buffalo Pitts Co., Buffalo, N. T. 
The particular feature of merit claimed for this thresher 
is the method employed for the separation of the grain 







316 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 25. 

The Niagara Second Steel Frame Thresher Equipped with Feeder, 
Buffalo Pitts Russell Gearless Wind Stacker, 

Weigher and Bagger. 








TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


317 


and straw. After the grain and straw have passed the 
threshing cylinder, the straw is first operated upon by 
the second, or separating cylinder. 

A view of the two cylinders is shown in Figure 26. A 
separating cylinder when properly located and adjusted 
in its relation to the threshing cylinder, is a very effective 
device for separating the grain from the straw. 



FIGURE 26. 

Threshing- and Separating Cylinder and Grates. 


As the grain leaves the threshing cylinder, a separation 
of the short straw and grain from the long and heavy 
straw is effected. The short straw and grain are carried 
to the lower straw rack, Figure 27, and the long straw 
to the upper straw racks, and in this operation is obtained 
a duplex effect. The mass is thus divided into two dis¬ 
tinct bodies, and is handled on double straw racks. The 













318 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 27. 

The Lower Straw Rack, or Chaffer, and Auxiliary Fans. 


upper straw racks are so constructed and operated, that 
they tend to move the upper half of the long straw faster 
than the lower half, thus tearing the straw apart and al¬ 
lowing the remaining grain to fall through to the lower 
straw rack. The lower straw rack at the same time is 
operating on the short straw and grain, with the assist¬ 
ance of the auxiliary fans and grain pan, in such a man¬ 
ner that only the grain and chaff are delivered to the shoe 
for final cleaning. 

Teeth .—Figure 28 shows the T-6 tooth together with 



FIGURE 28. 

Buffalo-Pitts T-6 Cylinder Tooth. 














TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


319 


the nut and spring lock washer. The same tooth is used 
in the cylinder bar and concaves, arid but one bar and 
head tooth, so that for the cylinder and concave only two 
kinds of teeth are used, namely T-5 and T-6. This does 
away with the large variety of teeth usually necessary for 
a complete set. 

Buffalo Pitts Steel Feeder .—The action of this feeder, 
a view of which is shown in Figure 29, is as follows: 



FIGURE 29. 

Interior View of the Buffalo Pitts Steel Feeder. 


The grain is carried under the rapidly revolving knives, 
which cut the bands and act as a stripper from the top, 
while the rapidly revolving feeder cylinder carries the 
grain forward from the bottom. The grain is thus de¬ 
livered to the retarder, which holds it at the bottom while 
the porcupine, which acts as a storage, will feed it to the 
cylinder evenly, keeping the cylinder full. 

Figure 30 shows the retarder, the porcupine and the 




320 


TRACTION FARMING 



The Feeder Cylinder, 


FIGURE 30 











TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


321 


feeder cylinder. The governor, or feed regulator, acts 
independently of the speed of the threshing cylinder, and 
stops the carrier retarder and porcupine, thus holding the 
grain until the cylinder is ready to receive it. The tailings 
are delivered through the side of the feeder directly in 
front of the threshing cylinder, and are carried in by a 
slowly revolving fan, which eliminates the throwing of 
the grain out through the front of feeder. 


MINNEAPOLIS STANDARD SEPARATOR. 

This machine, a view of which is presented in Figure 
31, is built by the Minneapolis Threshing Machine Co., 
in sizes from 24x42 to 40x62 ins. 

The Feeder .—A good idea of the construction of the 
feeder attached to this thresher may be obtained from 
Figure 32. It is equipped with an automatic governor 
and fish-back feeding pans. It has a long, heavy chain 
carrier with a high center board to keep the bundles in 
line while they are being carried to the band knives. The 
carrier is held in position by two adjustable rods which 
also hold the carrier when folded under the feeder. The 
knife bars are driven by a heavy crank shaft, with two of 
the knife-bars directly opposite the other two, and per¬ 
fectly counterbalanced, making the feeder run smoothly 
and quietly. There are four of these knife bars with 
knives on each side. The feeder mechanism is driven by 
a leather belt equipped with a tightener, by means of 
which the belt may be loosened entirely and the feeder 
stopped whenever desired. 

The opposite end of the shaft has a friction governor 
on it, which not only keeps the carrier and feeding-pan 



322 


TRACTION FARMING 


from working until the cylinder has attained the proper 
speed, but also controls the amount of grain carried to the 
cylinder while threshing. The speed of the governor may 
be varied at the will of the operator by interchangeable 
gears. 

Tilting Device .—This device gives the operator free ac¬ 
cess to the cylinder and concaves in order to do any work 
required about the cylinder. The feeder can be tilted in 



FIGURE 31 

The Minneapolis Standard Separator. Feeder, Dakota "Weigher 
and Minneapolis Gearless Wind Stacker. 


a moment’s time by throwing off the main belt and loos¬ 
ening two hooks on either side of the brackets. 

Crankshaft .—This shaft works in pivoted boxes, which 
are adjustable, and may be raised or lowered to suit large 
or small bundles. 

There is a set of auxiliary fish-back feeding pans, op¬ 
erating at high speed and hanging on malleable iron hang- 







TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


323 


ers at the front end, and just above the cylinder. The 
rear end is connected to the knife-bar, just in front of 
the crankshaft box. The movement of the crankshaft 
produces a movement of these fish-back feeding pans, 
which feeds the top of the straw to the cylinder first. 

There is also a fish-back feeding pan at the bottom, 
running at a slower speed that the upper pan. This lower 



FIGURE 32. 

Looking into the Minneapolis Feeder. 


feeding pan is driven by a crankshaft attached to the top 
end, the lower end resting on the adjustable plate, which 
should always rest on the front concave. 

Cylinders .—The cylinder sides are cast in one piece and 
securely bolted to the cylinder posts and frame, so there 
is no possibility of the cylinder getting out of line when 
once adjusted. They are equipped with self-oiling cylin¬ 
der-boxes, and are fitted with keystone teeth. 





























324 


TRACTION FARMING 


Concaves and Grates. —The concaves and grate used in 
this separator present a large separating surface and in¬ 
sure a great amount of separation at the cylinder. 

After the straw passes through the cylinder, it is car¬ 
ried over a slatted iron grate directly back of the con¬ 
caves, causing the greatest separation to take place at this 
point, allowing the grain and chaff to fall through onto 
the grain pan. 

The Grate is arranged so it can be raised and lowered 
to suit the conditions of the grain, while the machine is 
in operation. The six-wing beater is immediately in the 
rear of the cylinder. It is so constructed th&t it stops the 
flying kernels and spreads the straw on the rack. 

The Upper Straw Rack or separating table is equipped 
with a series of lifting fingers which keep up a continual 
and thorough agitation of the straw, allowing the grain 
to pass through the slatted table onto the lower pan. 

The Pickers are placed immediately behind the apron 
and are a very valuable and effective means of separation. 
They work above and into the straw and prevent it from 
bunching. Reaching forward, they assist in carrying the 
straw to the rear and release any grain remaining in the 
straw. 

The Beater is immediately in the rear of the cylinder, 
and revolves in the same direction. Being large and iron 
covered, it stops all flying grain, while the construction is 
such as to spread the straw toward the sides of the sep¬ 
arator. 

The Straw Rack is fastened to the upper end of the 
rocker-arm and the galvanized steel grain pan to the lower 
end, and it is so arranged that when the straw rack trav¬ 
els backward, the grain pan travels forward, thus making 


TYPES OF THRESHING MACHINES 


325 


it evenly balanced, and making the separator run much 
lighter 

The Shoe is an end-shake, and hangs on wood pitmans, 
on the outside of the separator. It is driven from the 
center of the crankshaft, and all connections to the shoe 
are on the outside of the machine, where they are readily 
accessible and can be easily taken care of. 

Above the grain sieve is another chaffer, which is fast¬ 
ened in the shoe, and when the chaffer attached to the 
grain pan moves backward, the one in the shoe moves 
forward. This provides a double chaffer over the grain 
sieve. The grain, when finally separated from the straw 
and chaff, and cleaned, is delivered from the shoe to a 
grain auger, and thence to the weigher, where it is meas¬ 
ured and weighed, and dumped into sacks. 


INDEX. 


Acres Irrigated by Varying Quantities of Water.251 

Action, Principles of . 10 

Advancing Point of Ignition, Reason for. 96 

Air Locks in the Fuel Pipe.154 

Air Tank, Time Required to Charge.248 

Air Tanks, Pumping Capacity of.237 

Alcohol as Fuel . 24 

Alcohol, Heating Value of. 25 

Amount of Water Required for Stock and Other Purposes. .238 

Anti-Freezing Solutions .136 

Arrangement of Cells .106 

Aultman and Taylor Gasoline Tractor.170 

Auto-Pneumatic Pump .243 

Avery Gas and Oil Tractors.188 

Babbitting Boxes .297 

Backfiring, Gasoline Engine .132 

Balancing of Engines . 43 

Bates All Steel Tractor.161 

Batteries, Fluid .113 

Batteries, Storage .107 

Battery Box, The .124 

Battery Ignition—Dry Batteries .104 

Battery Outfit .121 

Beater .271 

Beau de Rochas Cycle. 12 

Belts .296 

Belt Tightener .307 

Blast, The .276 

Box Coil Connection .117 

Boxes', The .296 

Broken Spark Plug .156 

Buffalo Pitts Steel Feeder .319 


326 

































INDEX 


327 


Buffalo Pitts Thresher .... 

Calcium Chloride .. 

Carbon in Cylinders .. 

Carbureters, Action of . 74 

Carbureter, The . 66 

—Adjustment of . 89 

—Cotton Double-Tube . 87 

—Non-Adjustable . 83 

—Spraying Nozzles .127 

—Vaporizing Functions of the.128 

Carbureters, Action of . 74 

—Types of . 73 

Carrier Stackers .289 

Caterpillar Tractor .229 

Case Gasoline Tractors . 220 

Cells, Arrangement of .106 

—Placing .106 

Charging Storage Batteries . 110 

Check Board .271, 294 

Cleaning Mill .274 

Compression . 12 

Concaves .267 

Converting Feet Head of Water Into Pressure Per Sq. In., 

Table for .247 

Converting Pressure Per Sq. In. Into Feet Head of Water, 

Table for .248 

Cooling Systems .135 

Crew, The .300 

Cylinder Boring .64 

—Construction . 63 

—Knocking or Pounding in.147 

—Lubrication .144 

—Soot in .146 

—Sweating . 65 

—Threshing .263 

Cylinders, Carbon in .133 

—Engine . 63 

Delco Ignition System . 101 

“Don’ts” .157 

Dry Batteries ..104 








































328 


INDEX 


Dynamo for Electric Lighting . 



Electric Current, Action of . 


.118 

Electric Lighting and Power Plants, 

General 

Information 

About . 



Electric Light for Farm Homes. 


.2b<* 

Engine Fires Irregularly . 


.155 

Engines for Operating Electric Lighting System 

.253 

Explosion . 



Expulsion . 


. 12 

Fairbanks-Morse Oil Tractors. 


.178 

Fans, The . 


.275 

Farm Tractors, Types of Gasoline and 

Oil. 

.161 

Feed Board . 



Feeders for Headed Grain. 


.286 

Feeders, The . 


.300 

Feeding . 


.280 

Float-Feed Valve . 



Fluid Batteries . 


.113 

Four-Cycle Engine . 



Four-Stroke Cycle . 


. 12 

Friction of Water in Pipes. 


.245 

Fuel Consumption of Gas Engines. 


. 17 

Fuel, Cost of . 


. 29 

—Tests . 



—Vaporizing of . 



Gasoline Engine Troubles . 


.152 

Gasoline Farm Tractors . 



Glycerine . 



Grades of Gasoline and Fuel Oil. 



Grates . 



Handling the Threshed Grain. 



Headed Grain, Feeders for. 



Heating Devices . 



Horse Power Calculation . 



Huber Traction Engines . 


.168 

Ignition Mechanism . 



Ignition, Modern .. 



Indicated Horse Power . 



Induction . 










































INDEX 


329 


Irrigation .251 

Kerosene as Fuel for Traction Engines. 40 

Kerosene Gas Producer . 42 

Knocking or Pounding in Cylinder. 147 

Leaky Pistons . 60 

Loss of Power .156 

Lubrication . 143 , 298 

Magnetos . 96 

Magneto, Timing the . 99 

Minneapolis Farm Motor .216 

Minneapolis Standard Separator .321 

Mixer . 66 

Motion of the Shoe, The.295 

Moving .302 

New Racine Thresher .310 

Operation of Threshing Machines.292 

Otto Cycle . 12 

Pfanstiehl Coil . 96 

Piston Rings . 48 

Pistons, Leaky . 60 

Pitchers .301 

Placing Cells .106 

Pneumatic Tank System .241 

Pump, Auto-Pneumatic .243 

Pumping Capacity of Air Tanks.237 

Rumely Oil Engine ..174 

Ruth Feeder .314 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor .208 

Sawyer-Massey Thresher .304 

Self-Feeders .280 

Separating Devices .271 

Setting the Machine .302 

Shoe, The .274, 295 

Short Circuits . 125 

Skibo Farm Tractor .165 

Soot in Cylinder .146 

Spark Adjustments .131 

Spark Coils and Magnetos . 96 

Spark Plug, Auburn . 94 









































330 


INDEX 


Spark Plug—Broken.156 

Speed, The .295 

Starting Up on a Cold Morning.141 

Storage Batteries .107 

—Capacity of .Ill 

—Testing .Ill 

Straw Crew, The .301 

Straw Governor .281 

Table Showing Number of Gallons of Water Delivered and 
Height to Which It Will be Projected Through Nozzles. . .249 

Teeth .269 

Testing Alcohol . 3/. 

Testing Oil as a Fuel. 36 

Testing Oils .145 

Threshing Cylinder .263 

Threshing Machines, Types of.304 

Threshing, The Science of.263 

Timing the Magneto . 99 

Twin City Gas Tractor.198 

Two-Cycle Engine . 13 

Types of Gasoline and Oil Farm Tractors.161 

Types of Threshing Machines.304 

Valve Chambers . 53 

—Float-Feed . 74 

—Lifters . 55 

—Operating Mechanism . 56 

—Stems, Fit of . 56 

—Troubles . 58 

Valves . 52 

—Diameter and Lift of. 53 

—Timing of . 56 

Vaporizing of Fuel .126 

Vaporizing Functions of the Carbureter.128 

Water Supply Systems in the Farm Home.233 

Wind Stackers .289 

Wood Alcohol .136 




































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